Индийская политика - Краткое руководство

  • Конституция страны - это документ, который включает набор письменных правил, принятых всеми, кто вместе проживает в этой стране.

  • Конституция страны является высшим законом страны и определяет отношения между людьми, живущими в этой стране, а также регулирует правительство и его политику по отношению к своим гражданам.

Роль Конституции

  • Конституция служит многим целям; его основные роли заключаются в следующем -

    • В нем описаны правила и положения, которые вызывают определенную степень доверия и координации между людьми из разных слоев общества, которые живут вместе;

    • Он обеспечивает рамки, в которых правительство и другие учреждения работают в стране;

    • Он определяет порядок формирования правительства и порядок принятия решений;

    • Он определяет полномочия, обязанности и пределы соответствующего правительства.

    • В нем также рассказывается о правах граждан и определяется верховенство закона и порядок их защиты.

  • Все демократические страны имеют свои конституции. Но наличие в стране полноценной конституции не является гарантией того, что она действительно демократична.

  • Американцы приняли конституцию после войны за независимость против Великобритании в 1787 году.

  • Точно так же французский народ одобрил демократическую конституцию после революции, то есть сначала в 1791 году, а недавно в 1958 году. С тех пор письменная конституция стала практикой во всех демократических странах.

  • Сборник основных правил называется конституцией, и эти правила являются всеобъемлющими и определяют:

    • полномочия избранных правительств делать дела;

    • ограничения, запрещающие делать определенные вещи;

    • основные права гражданина; и

    • как будут выбираться правители в будущем.

Историческая справка

  • В 1928 году Мотилал Неру и восемь других лидеров Конгресса разработали конституцию Индии.

  • В 1931 году Индийский национальный конгресс на своем заседании в Карачи принял резолюцию о том, как должна выглядеть конституция независимой Индии.

  • Оба эти документа включают право на универсальные права для взрослых, право на свободу и равенство, а также на защиту прав меньшинств.

  • Позже положения этих документов послужили основой для определенных базовых ценностей, которые были приняты всеми лидерами и включены в конституцию независимой Индии.

  • Британское правление привело к тому, что в Индии законодательные органы были слабыми благодаря предоставлению избирательных прав лишь нескольким избранным лицам.

  • В 1937 году были проведены выборы в законодательные собрания провинций по всей Британской Индии, которые не были полностью демократическими правительствами. Однако работа с этими законодательными институтами дала индейцам полезный опыт, который помог в создании местных институтов в независимой Индии.

  • Как и Южная Африка, Конституция Индии также была составлена ​​в очень сложных условиях.

  • Создатели индийской конституции взяли ее основную структуру из Закона о правительстве Индии 1935 года.

Учредительное собрание

  • Учредительное собрание было органом избранных представителей народа Индии.

  • Выборы в Учредительное собрание состоялись в июле 1946 года, а его первое заседание состоялось в декабре 1946 года.

  • Что касается раздела, Учредительное собрание также было разделено на две части, названные Учредительным собранием Индии и Учредительным собранием Пакистана.

  • Учредительное собрание Индии, разработавшее конституцию Индии, состояло из 299 членов.

  • Учредительное собрание Индии приняло Конституцию 26 November 1949, но он вступил в силу 26 January 1950.

Факторы формирования конституции

  • Факторы, которые способствовали созданию Конституции Индии, были:

    • Французская революция;

    • Парламентская демократия в Великобритании;

    • Билль о правах в США; и

    • Социалистическая революция в России.

Ключевые особенности индийской конституции

  • Ниже приведены важные особенности Конституции Индии:

    • Конституция Индии - этоwrittenконституция.

    • Конституция Индии - этоflexible'(может быть изменено), но это тоже'rigid'(как часть, т.е. его'basic structure'не может быть изменено).

    • Конституция Индии - этоUnitary'(поскольку Центр имеет больше власти), но он также'Federal'(поскольку власть поделена между Центром и государством).

Другие факты конституции

  • Индийский национальный конгресс потребовал созвать Учредительное собрание в 1934 году, которое было создано для разработки конституции Индии 9 декабря 1946 года.

  • Учредительное собрание разработало Конституцию независимой Индии в период с 9 декабря 1946 года по 26 ноября 1949 года.

  • Мы, народ Индии, приняли и приняли Конституцию Индии 26 ноября 1949 года; тем не менее, он был полностью введен в эксплуатацию 26 января 1950 года.

  • Конституция - это фундаментальный свод правил и принципов, на основании которых народ этой страны обязан руководствоваться.

  • Основные нормы Конституции определяют тип правительства и составляющие его части, а также характер политики, которую должна проводить страна.

  • Таким образом, Конституция служит стержнем в достижении баланса между различиями и обеспечивает гарантии интересов каждого ее гражданина.

  • Точно так же Конституция Индии делает Индию демократической страной и определяет:

    • процедуры формирования правительства;

    • методы и процесс функционирования правительства; и

    • процесс взаимодействия между различными частями правительства в конкретной области их работы.

  • Кроме того, Конституция также определяет список основных прав, которые являются важной частью Конституции для защиты интересов каждого гражданина от тирании государства, а также от доминирования определенного сообщества (которое составляет большинство и мощность).

  • Конституция является высшим законом страны и источником всех полномочий и полномочий правительства и его органов. Точно так же правительство не только вытекает из Конституции, но и выполняет свои функции и обязанности в рамках Конституции.

  • Руководящие ценности Конституции

    Введение

    • Индия - республиканское государство, и президент Индии - глава нации. Он / она избирается каждые пять лет.

    • Положения Конституции гарантируют справедливость для всех. Никто не может подвергаться дискриминации по признаку касты, религии или пола. Социальное неравенство по признаку касты, религии и пола строго запрещено.

    • Благополучие всех граждан - главная цель правительства; кроме того, правительству также необходимо уделять особое внимание, особенно малообеспеченным слоям общества.

    Руководящие ценности Конституции

    • Важные ценности индийских конституций изображены на следующей иллюстрации -

    Свобода

    • Конституция предоставляет каждому гражданину ряд свобод и свобод в соответствии со статьями 19–21, 21A и 22. Установлено, что никакие необоснованные ограничения не могут быть наложены на граждан для регулирования их свободы.

    • Право на свободу согласно статье 19 включает:

      • Право на свободу слова и выражения;

      • Право на создание ассоциации;

      • Право на свободное передвижение;

      • Проживать в любой части страны; и

      • Право заниматься любой профессией, занятием или бизнесом.

    Равенство

    • Конституция гласит, что все граждане равны перед законом, и правительство должно обеспечить прекращение традиционной практики социального неравенства по признакам касты, религии и пола.

    • Право на равенство закреплено в статьях 14-18 Конституции Индии, которая гарантирует право на равенство для всех людей и запрещает любую дискриминацию в отношении любого гражданина по любому из оснований религии, расы, касты, пола и место рождения.

    • Статья 14 предусматривает, что все люди равны перед законом. Это означает, что все люди в равной степени защищены законами страны.

    • В статье 15 говорится, что ни один гражданин не может подвергаться дискриминации на основании его / ее религии, расы, касты, пола или места рождения.

    • В статье 16 говорится, что государство не может дискриминировать кого-либо в вопросах занятости.

    • Статья 17 отменяет практику неприкасаемости в Индии. Он предусматривает, что каждый человек имеет доступ ко всем общественным местам, включая детские площадки, отели, магазины и т. Д.

    • Право против эксплуатации закреплено в статьях 23–24 Конституции Индии. Он обеспечивает фундаментальное право против эксплуатации каждому гражданину Индии.

    • Статья 23 Конституции предусматривает запрещение любого вида принудительного труда, и любое нарушение этого положения является правонарушением, наказуемым в соответствии с законом.

    • Статья 24 защищает детей, заявляя, что ни один ребенок в возрасте до 14 лет не может быть нанят для работы на каком-либо заводе, в шахтах или для любой другой опасной работы.

    Братство

    • Все индейцы являются членами семьи, никто не ниже или не выше, все равны и имеют одинаковые права и обязанности.

    Суверенитет

    • Правительство Индии свободно принимать любое решение как по внутренним, так и по внешним вопросам, и никакая внешняя сила не может его диктовать.

    Социалистический

    • В социалистической стране граждане имеют право на собственность, но правительство должно регулировать это законом, социально-экономическую деятельность, чтобы уменьшить неравенство в обществе, и, следовательно, каждый гражданин имеет равное право делиться ресурсами страны.

    • Концепция социальной справедливости была принята 42-й поправкой к Конституции, которая позволяет судам поддерживать положения, устраняющие экономическое неравенство в нашем обществе.

    Светский

    • Индия - светская страна. Официальной религии правительства не существует, и правительство одинаково относится ко всем религиям.

    • Статьи 25–28 обеспечивают «право на свободу религии» для каждого гражданина. Это фундаментальное право, которое дает каждому человеку свободу жить в соответствии со своими религиозными убеждениями и практиками, когда он интерпретирует эти убеждения.

    • Культурные и образовательные права (статьи 29-30) гласят, что все меньшинства, религиозные или языковые, имеющие свой собственный язык, письменность или культуру, (они) могут создавать свои собственные учебные заведения для сохранения и развития своего языка, сценарий или культура.

    Демократичный

    • Демократическая система правления основывается на некоторых основных принципах, которые в совокупности называются «верховенством закона».

    • При демократической форме правления люди в стране пользуются равными политическими правами, выбирают и меняют своих представителей и привлекают их к ответственности.

    Преамбула

    • Индийская демократия основана на тех ценностях, которые вдохновляли и направляли борьбу за свободу.

    • Конституция Индии закрепила эти ценности в преамбуле. Поэтому Преамбула излучает свет, который освещает все статьи Конституции Индии.

    • Преамбула для начала представляет собой краткое вступительное заявление об основных ценностях конституции. Другими словами, это «Душа Конституции».

    • Это преамбула, которая обеспечивает стандарт для изучения и оценки любого закона и действия правительства, чтобы судить о его действительности и неприкосновенности.

    Индийская государственная власть - источники конституции

    Введение

    • Индийская конституция была сформирована после обыска всех основных конституций мира; однако в то же время разработчики также учли следующие факторы:

      • Историческая перспектива Индии;

      • Географическое разнообразие Индии; и

      • Культурные и традиционные особенности Индии.

    Основные источники

    В следующей таблице показаны основные источники Конституции Индии -

    Положения Источники
    Президент (номинальный руководитель) The United Kingdom
    Кабинет министров
    Парламентский тип правления
    Пост премьер-министра
    Двухпалатный парламент
    Совет Министров
    Предоставление спикера в Лок Сабха
    Законодательство
    Гражданство
    Приказы
    Верховенство закона
    Преамбула The United States
    Основные права
    Независимая судебная власть
    Судебный пересмотр
    Импичмент президента
    Отстранение судей (Верховного суда и высоких судов)
    Функции вице-президента
    Федеральная система (с сильным центром) Canada
    Остаточные полномочия в Центре
    Назначение управляющих (в штатах) Центром
    Консультативная юрисдикция Верховного суда
    Принцип кооперативного федерализма Australia
    Свобода межгосударственной торговли
    Торговля и коммерция
    Параллельный список
    Совместное размещение двух палат парламента
    Директивные принципы государственной политики Ireland
    Президентские выборы
    Назначение членов Раджья Сабха
    Республика France
    Свобода, равенство и братство в преамбуле
    Основные обязанности Russia
    Идея социальной, экономической и политической справедливости в преамбуле
    Порядок внесения поправок South Africa
    Выборы членов Раджья Сабха
    Чрезвычайные полномочия, которыми должен обладать Союз Germany
    Приостановление действия основных прав во время чрезвычайной ситуации
    Порядок, установленный законом Japan
    Федеральная схема Govt. of India Act 1935
    Роль федеральной судебной власти
    Канцелярия губернатора
    Аварийные положения
    Комиссии по государственной службе
    Административные данные

    Индийская политика - как работает конституция

    Введение

    • Конституция - это набор фундаментальных принципов, в соответствии с которыми государство создается или управляется.

    • Конституция определяет основное распределение власти в государстве и решает, кто будет решать, какие законы будут.

    • Конституция сначала определяет, как будет организован парламент, и наделяет его полномочиями принимать законы и политику.

    • Конституция устанавливает некоторые ограничения для правительства в отношении того, в какой степени правительство может навязывать правила и политику своим гражданам. Эти ограничения являются фундаментальными в том смысле, что правительство никогда не может их нарушить.

    • Конституция позволяет правительству реализовывать чаяния общества и создавать условия для справедливого общества.

    Распределение власти

    • Конституция Индии горизонтально распределяет власть между тремя следующими учреждениями, как показано на следующей иллюстрации:

    Парламент

    • Все избранные представители вместе образуют орган, называемый Parliament.

    • Парламент состоит из двух палат, а именно: Rajya Sabha (Верхняя палата) и Lok Sabha (Нижняя палата).

    • Группа большинства (избираемая путем выборов) в парламенте призвана сформировать правительство.

    • Правительство несет ответственность за разработку политики и других национальных решений, которые обычно принимаются после интенсивных дебатов и конструктивных обсуждений в парламенте.

    • Премьер-министр является главой правительства. Премьер-министр председательствовал на заседаниях кабинета министров, на которых принимаются важные решения.

    Исполнительный

    • Президент Индии является главой государства; однако он / она осуществляет только номинальные полномочия.

    • Функции президента носят в основном церемониальный характер (по аналогии с королевой Британии).

    • Следующая диаграмма иллюстрирует иерархию индийского правительства -

    Судебная власть

    • Судебная система Индии содержит иерархию судов, где Верховный суд является высшим судом Индии.

    • Кроме того, некоторые конституционные и другие независимые уставные органы, например, Избирательная комиссия, также получили независимые полномочия.

    • Распределение власти между различными органами таким образом гарантирует, что даже если одно учреждение хочет ниспровергнуть Конституцию, другие могут сдерживать ее нарушения и поддерживать гармонию.

    • Индийская государственная власть - Союз и его территория

      • В статьях 1–4 Части I Конституции описывается Союз и его территория.
      • В статье 1 (1) говорится, что Индия, то есть Бхарат, должна быть Союзом Штатов.

      • Статья 1 (2) гласит, что штаты и их территории должны быть такими, как указано в Первом приложении.

      • Статья 1 (3) гласит, что территория Индии включает:

        • Территории Штатов;

        • Территории Союза, указанные в Первом Приложении; и

        • Такие другие территории, которые могут быть приобретены.

      • Всего в стране 29 штатов, 6 союзных территорий и 1 национальная столичная территория (как показано на приведенной выше карте).

      • Статья 2 гласит, что Парламент может по закону принимать в Союз или создавать новые штаты на таких условиях, которые он считает подходящими.

      • Статья 3 гласит, что Парламент может по закону образовать новое государство путем отделения территории от любого штата или путем объединения двух или более штатов или частей штатов, или путем объединения любой территории с частью любого государства.

      • Статья 4 гласит, что любой закон, упомянутый в статье 2 или статье 3, должен содержать такие положения о внесении поправок в Первое приложение и Четвертое приложение, которые могут потребоваться для выполнения положений закона, а также может содержать такие дополнительные, случайные и соответствующие положения (включая положения о представительстве в парламенте и в законодательном органе или законодательных собраниях штата или штатов, на которые распространяется действие такого закона), которые парламент может счесть необходимыми.

      Индийское государство - гражданство

      • Articles 5 to 11 под Part II Конституции описывают гражданство.

      • Статья 5 гласит, что на момент вступления в силу настоящей Конституции каждое лицо, имеющее постоянное место жительства на территории Индии и -

        • кто родился на территории Индии; или же

        • один из родителей которого родился на территории Индии; или же

        • кто обычно проживал на территории Индии не менее пяти лет непосредственно перед таким началом,

        должен быть гражданином Индии.

      • В статье 6 говорится, что, невзирая на положения статьи 5, лицо, которое иммигрировало на территорию Индии с территории, которая в настоящее время включена в состав Пакистана, считается гражданином Индии в момент вступления в силу настоящей Конституции.

      • В статье 7 говорится, что, несмотря на положения статей 5 и 6, лицо, которое после первого дня марта 1947 года мигрировало с территории Индии на территорию, которая теперь входит в состав Пакистана, не считается гражданином Индии.

      • В статье 8 говорится, что, несмотря на положения статьи 5, любое лицо, которое или любой из родителей или дедушка которого родился в Индии, как это определено в Законе о правительстве Индии 1935 года, и которое обычно проживает в любой стране за пределами Индии в соответствии с таким определением считается гражданином Индии, если он был зарегистрирован в качестве гражданина Индии дипломатическим или консульским представителем Индии в стране, где он в настоящее время проживает по заявлению, сделанному им для этого дипломатический или консульский представитель, будь то до или после вступления в силу настоящей Конституции, в форме и порядке, установленными Правительством Доминиона Индии или Правительством Индии.

      • В статье 9 говорится, что ни одно лицо не может быть гражданином Индии в силу статьи 5 или считаться гражданином Индии в силу статьи 6 или статьи 8, если оно добровольно приобрело гражданство какого-либо иностранного государства.

      • В статье 10 говорится, что каждое лицо, которое является или считается гражданином Индии в соответствии с любым из вышеуказанных положений настоящей Части, должно, с учетом положений любого закона, который может быть принят Парламентом, оставаться таким гражданином.

      • Статья 11 гласит, что ничто в предшествующих положениях данной Части не умаляет полномочий Парламента принимать какие-либо положения в отношении приобретения и прекращения гражданства, а также всех других вопросов, касающихся гражданства.

      Индийская государственная власть - основные права

      Введение

      • Конституция Индии перечисляет права граждан Индии, которые будут особо защищены и известны как «Основные права».

      • «Фундаментальные» означает, что в Конституции отдельно перечислены и содержатся специальные положения о защите «основных прав».

      • Основные права отличаются от других прав (т. Е. Обычных юридических прав), доступных гражданам Индии.

      • Обычные юридические права защищены и соблюдаются обычным законом; но основные права защищены и гарантируются Конституцией Индии.

      • Обычные права могут быть изменены или дополнены законодательным органом посредством обычного законотворческого процесса, но основное право может быть изменено только путем внесения поправок в саму Конституцию.

      • Судебная власть наделена полномочиями и обязанностью (закрепленными Конституцией) защищать основные права; в случае, если какое-либо действие правительства нарушает его.

      • Судебные органы, если сочтут, что какое-либо действие правительства (исполнительной или законодательной властью) равнозначно нарушению основных прав, могут быть объявлены это действие незаконным или ограничить их дальнейшие действия.

      • Однако основные права имеют некоторые разумные ограничения и, следовательно, не являются абсолютными по своей природе.

      • Кроме того, в преамбуле нашей Конституции говорится об обеспечении всем гражданам равенства, свободы и справедливости. Фундаментальные права претворяют в жизнь это обещание.

      • Основные права очень важны для жизни каждого. Они - основная черта Конституции.

      • Конституция Индии предусматривает six Основные права, упомянутые в статьях 12–35 Части III (Конституции).

      Право на равенство

      • Верховенство закона - это основа индийской демократии, согласно которой законы применяются одинаково ко всем, независимо от статуса человека. Это означает, что премьер-министр страны или бедный фермер из отдаленной деревни подчиняются одному и тому же закону и равному обращению.

      • В статье 14 говорится, что правительство не должно отказывать никому в равенстве перед законом или равной защите закона , что означает:

        • Законы применяются ко всем одинаково;

        • Никто не стоит выше закона;

        • Каждый гражданин подвергается одинаковым законам и одинаковому обращению;

        • Ни одно лицо не может по закону требовать какого-либо особого обращения или привилегий на каком-либо основании; и

        • Ло не делает различий между политическим лидером, государственным чиновником и обычным гражданином.

      • В статье 15 говорится, что ни один гражданин не может подвергаться дискриминации на основании его / ее религии, расы, касты, пола или места рождения.

      • Статья 15 еще больше усилила право на равенство, предусматривая, что каждый гражданин должен иметь равный доступ к общественным местам, таким как магазины, рестораны, гостиницы и кинозалы. Аналогичным образом не должно быть ограничений в отношении использования колодцев, резервуаров, купальных гхатов, дорог, детских площадок и общественных курортов, находящихся в ведении правительства.

      • В статье 16 говорится, что государство не может дискриминировать кого-либо в вопросах занятости.

      • Статья 17 отменяет практику неприкасаемости в любой форме, которая гласит, что каждый человек имеет доступ ко всем общественным местам, включая детские площадки, отели, магазины и т. Д.

      Право на свободу

      • Свобода означает невмешательство и отсутствие ограничений в свои дела со стороны других лиц, будь то отдельные лица или правительство.

      • Конституция Индии предоставляет всем гражданам свободу в соответствии со статьей 19 совершать любое из следующих действий:

        • Право на свободу слова и выражения;

        • Право на мирные собрания;

        • Право создавать ассоциации и союзы;

        • Право на свободное передвижение по стране;

        • Право проживать в любой части страны; и

        • Право заниматься любой профессией или заниматься любым видом деятельности, торговлей или бизнесом.

      • Тем не менее, существуют определенные разумные ограничения, которые могут быть наложены на граждан правительством в более широких интересах общества.

      • Аналогичным образом, хотя каждый гражданин имеет право на все эти свободы, но он подлежит разумным ограничениям, таким как:

        • Выражение свобод не должно причинять неудобства или беспорядки в обществе.

        • Эта свобода одного не должна нарушать право других на свободу.

        • Свобода - это не безграничное право делать то, что хочется.

        • Соответственно, правительство может вводить определенные разумные ограничения (свободы граждан) в более широких интересах общества.

      • Достопочтенный Верховный суд Индии объяснил «свободу» в соответствии со статьей 21 следующим образом:

        • Ни один гражданин не может быть убит, если суд не вынесет смертного приговора.

        • Ни один человек не может быть арестован или задержан сотрудником полиции без надлежащего правового основания.

      • В соответствии с руководящими принципами, установленными Высоким судом Индии, офицер полиции при аресте человека должен выполнить некоторые процедуры:

        • Офицер полиции обязан проинформировать человека (в случае его ареста), причину (ы) его ареста и задержания, и лицо, арестованное таким образом, имеет право знать причину своего ареста.

        • Офицер полиции обязан доставить арестованного к ближайшему мировому судье в течение 24 часов после ареста.

        • Задержанный имеет право проконсультироваться с адвокатом по своему выбору для своей защиты.

      Право против эксплуатации

      • Конституция Индии содержит четкие и четкие положения, направленные на предотвращение эксплуатации более слабых слоев общества.

      • Конституция запрещает следующие действия как зло и объявляет их незаконными:

        • Торговля людьми, то есть продажа и покупка людей (обычно жертвами торговли людьми становятся женщины и дети).

        • Принудительный труд или нищенство в любой форме незаконны и запрещены (нищий - это работа или услуга без вознаграждения, которая называется кабальным трудом, если эта практика распространяется на всю жизнь рабочего).

        • Детский труд также запрещен. Детей младше 14 лет нельзя использовать для работы на фабриках или шахтах, а также на любых других опасных работах, таких как железные дороги и порты.

      • Парламент Индии принял законы для реализации конституционного права, которое запрещает детям младше 14 лет работать на опасных производствах, таких как изготовление беди, изготовление петард и спичек, полиграфия и крашение.

      Право на свободу вероисповедания

      • Индия - это secular state, что означает, что в государстве нет официальной религии, и Индия не поощряет / не защищает одну религию по сравнению с другой религией.

      • Основные права, закрепленные в статьях 25–28, облегчают людям свободу жить в соответствии со своими религиозными убеждениями и практиками при их толковании.

      • Каждый гражданин Индии имеет право исповедовать, практиковать и распространять религию, в которую он или она верит.

      • Каждая секта или религиозная группа вправе управлять своими религиозными делами, но она подлежит разумным ограничениям, запрещающим любое лицо или организацию принуждать другое лицо к обращению в его религию с помощью силы, обмана, побуждения или соблазна.

      • This right is in the form of restrictions upon the government not to compel any person to pay any taxes for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious institution.

      • In the educational institutions run or added by the government, neither any religious instruction can be imparted nor can any person be compelled to take part in any religious instruction or to attend any religious worship.

      Cultural and Educational Rights

      • The democracy is based upon the wishes of the majority. In this system, the right and interest of the minorities need to be protected by developing a mechanism that cannot be changed prejudicially by the majority.

      • Therefore in a democratic country, Special Protection is provided in the constitution to preserve and develop the language, culture, and religion of minorities.

      • Any section of citizens with a distinct language or culture has the right to conserve its language, culture, and religious practices.

      • Articles 29 and 30 provide Cultural and Educational Rights, which states that all minorities, religious or linguistic groups, having a distinct language, script or culture of its own can set up their own educational institutions in order to preserve and develop their language, script, or culture.

      Right to Constitutional Remedies

      • A person aggrieved by the violation of any of his/her fundamental right can approach either to the Supreme Court (under Article 32) or High Court (under Article 226) for the restoration of his/her fundamental right/s.

      • The enforceability of rights is a very important aspect of all fundamental rights and hence, it is called as the “Right to Constitutional Remedies.”

      • According to Dr. Ambedkar, the right to constitutional remedies is the ‘heart and soul of the Constitution.’

      • If someone violates someone’s Fundamental Rights, then he/she can approach either a High Court or directly the Supreme Court to get proper remedy.

      • The Supreme Court or the High Court (as the case may be) can issue orders (known as writs) and give directives to the Government for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights.

      • Following are the five writs/orders issued by either the Supreme Court or High Courts −

        • Habeas corpus − A writ of habeas corpus means that the court orders that the arrested person should be presented before the court. The court can also order to set free an arrested person if the manner and/or grounds of arrest are not lawful or satisfactory.

        • Mandamus − This writ is issued when a court finds that a particular office holder is not doing legal duty and thereby is infringing on the right of an individual.

        • Prohibition − This writ is issued by a higher court (High Court or Supreme Court); when a lower court has considered a case, which is going beyond its jurisdiction.

        • Quo Warranto − If a court finds that a person is holding office but is not entitled to hold that office, it issues the writ of quo warranto and restricts that person from acting as an office holder.

        • Certiorari − Under this writ, a higher court orders a lower court or another authority to transfer a matter pending before it to the higher authority or court.

      • Apart from the judiciary, some other bodies and mechanisms that protect an individual’s right are −

        • The National Commission on Minorities,

        • The National Commission on Women,

        • The National Commission on Scheduled Castes, etc.

      • In 1993, the Government of India has established ‘National Human Rights Commission’ (NHRC), which consists of −

        • A former chief justice of the Supreme Court of India;

        • A former judge of the Supreme Court;

        • A former chief justice of a High Court, and

        • Two other members who have knowledge and practical experience in the matters relating to human rights.

      • However, NHRC does not have the power of prosecution. It can merely make recommendations to the government or recommend to the courts to initiate proceedings based on the inquiry that it conducted.

      Expansion and Scope of Fundamental Rights

      • Since independence, the scope of Fundamental Rights have expanded greatly to include several other rights from time to time.

      • The Fundamental Rights embedded in our constitution are the source of all rights, based on this, the Government of India enacted several laws e.g. −

        • Right to information,

        • Right to freedom of press, and

        • Right to education.

      • The Parliament of India has amended the Constitution to include ‘school education’ as a Fundamental Right for the Indian citizens. Resultantly, now it is the duty and responsibility of the governments to provide free and compulsory education to all children up to the age of 14 years.

      • The Parliament has enacted a law ‘right to information act’ under the Fundamental Right to freedom of thought and expression, which provides a right to seek information from the government offices.

      • The Supreme Court of India by explaining the Fundamental Rights has further expanded the scope and meaning of the Fundamental Rights, as it included ‘right to food’ in the ‘right to life’ section (i.e. Article 21).

      Indian Polity - Directive Principles

      Introduction

      • A list of policy guidelines is included in the Constitution known as “the Directive Principles of State Policy” (DPSP).

      • These guidelines are ‘non-justifiable’, i.e., parts of the Constitution that cannot be enforced by the judiciary.

      Goals of DPSP

      • Following are the significant Goals of DPSP −

        • Welfare of the people; Social, economic, and political justice;

        • Raising the standard of living; equitable distribution of resources;

        • Promotion of international peace.

      Policies of DPSP

      • Following are the important Policies of DPSP −

        • Uniform civil code;

        • Prohibition of consumption of alcoholic liquor;

        • Promotion of cottage industries;

        • Prevention of slaughter of useful cattle;

        • Promotion of village panchayats

      Non - Justifiable rights of DPSP

      • Following are the major non-justifiable rights of DPSP −

        • Adequate livelihood;

        • Equal pay for equal work for men and women;

        • Right against economic exploitation;

        • Right to work; and

        • Early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years.

      Difference between DPSP & FR

      • Following are the major differences between the Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of State Policy −

        • The Fundamental Rights mainly protect the rights of individuals, while the directive principles ensure the well-being of the entire society.

        • The Fundamental Rights are justifiable and can be claimed in the court of law, whereas the Directive Principles of State Policy cannot be enforced by the judiciary.

        • The Fundamental Rights restrain the government from doing certain things, while the Directive Principles of State Policy insist the government to do certain things.

      • Regarding the Right to Property, the Constitution made it clear that property could be taken away by the government for public welfare.

      • In 1973, the Supreme Court gave a decision that the Right to Property was not a part of the basic structure of the Constitution and therefore, the Parliament has the power to abridge this right by an amendment.

      • In 1978, the 44th amendment to the Constitution removed the Right to Property from the list of Fundamental Rights and transformed it into a simple legal right under Article 300 A.

      • Indian Polity - Fundamental Duties

        Under Part IV ‘A’, Article 51A of the Indian Constitution describes the following "Fundamental Duties" (i.e. the duty of every citizen of India).

        • To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem;

        • To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom;

        • To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;

        • To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;

        • To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;

        • To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;

        • To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures;

        • To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;

        • To safeguard public property and to abjure violence;

        • To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of achievement; and

        • Who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and fourteen years.

        Indian Polity - Union Executive

        Introduction

        • The organ of a government that primarily looks after the function of implementation and administration is known the Executive.

        • The Executive is the branch of Government accountable for the implementation of laws and policies legislated by the legislature.

        • In the Parliamentary form of executive, the Prime Minister is the head of the government and the head of the State may be Monarch (Constitutional Monarchy, e.g. UK) or President (Parliamentary Republic, e.g. India).

        • In a Semi-Presidential System, the President is the head of the State and the Prime Minister is the head of the government, e.g. France.

        • In a Presidential System, the President is the head of the State as well as the head of government, e.g. the US.

        Indian System

        • Article 74 (1) of the Indian Constitution states that “there shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President who shall in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice.”

        • The President has a wide range of power including executive, legislative, judicial, and emergency powers. However, in a parliamentary system (e.g. India), these powers are in reality used by the President only on the advice of the Council of Ministers.

        • The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers have support of the majority in the Lok Sabha and they are the real executive.

        • The President is the formal head of the government.

        • The Prime Minister is obliged to furnish all the information that the President may call for.

        • The Council of Ministers is headed by the Prime Minister.

        • In the parliamentary form of executive, it is essential that the Prime Minister has the support of the majority in the Lok Sabha. And the moment the Prime Minister loses this support of the majority; he or she loses the office.

        • In case no party is in majority, a few parties can form government ‘in coalition.’

        • A Prime Minister has to be a Member of Parliament (MP); however, if someone becomes the Prime Minister without being an MP; in such as case, he or she has to get elected to the Parliament within six months of period.

        • The Council of Ministers constitutes not more than 15 percent of a total number of members of the House of the People (91st Amendment).

        • Persons selected by the Union Public Service Commission for Indian Administrative Service (IAS) and Indian Police Service (IPS) constitute the backbone of the higher level bureaucracy in the States.

        • Though IAS and IPS work under the state government, they are appointed by the central government; hence, only the central government can take disciplinary action against them. However, the officers appointed through the State Public Service Commission look after the state administration.

        The President

        • The President of India is the head of the State. He exercises only nominal powers. His functions are mainly ceremonial in nature like the Queen of Britain.

        • All the political institutions in India, function in the name of the President of India and the President supervises their functions to bring harmony in their works to achieve the objectives of the State.

        • In India, the President is elected, not appointed, (although not elected directly by the people). The President is elected by the Members of Parliament (MPs) and the Members of the Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) of each state.

        • Participation of Members of the state’s Legislative Assemblies in the election of the president of India shows that the President of India represents the entire nation. At the same time, the indirect election of the President ensures that he cannot claim popular mandate like that of the Prime Minister and thus remains only a nominal head of the State.

        • All major policy decisions and orders of the government are issued in the President’s name.

        • The President appoints all the major heads of the institutions of the government, i.e.,

          • The appointment of the Chief Justice of India,

          • The Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts of the states,

          • The Governors of the states,

          • The Election Commissioners,

          • Ambassadors to other countries, etc.

        • The government of India makes all international treaties and agreements in the name of the President.

        • The President is the supreme commander of the defense forces of India.

        • However, all these powers are exercised by the President only on the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister.

        • The President can ask the Council of Ministers for reconsideration on any advice (asked to him by the Council of Ministers), but if the Council of Ministers recommend the same advice again, he is bound to act according to it.

        • A Bill passed by the Parliament becomes a law only after the President gives assent to it. The President can return a Bill back to the Parliament for reconsideration, but he has to sign it, if the Parliament passes the Bill again (with or without amendment).

        Discretionary Power

        • In three circumstances, the President can exercise his or her discretionary power

          • The President can send back the advice given by the Council of Ministers for reconsideration.

          • The President has veto power (also known as ‘pocket veto’) by which he or she can withhold or refuse to give his or her assent to any Bill (other than Money Bill) passed by the Parliament. It happened once, i.e. in 1986, President Gyani Zail Singh withheld the “Indian Post Office (amendment) Bill.”

          • The President appoints the Prime Minister.

        Vice President

        • The Vice President is elected for five years and the election method is similar to that of the President; however, the only difference is that the members of State legislatures do not participate in the Electoral process.

        • The Vice President acts as the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.

        • The Vice President takes over the office of the President when there is a vacancy by reasons of death, resignation, removal by impeachment, or otherwise.

        • The Vice President may be removed from his or her office by a Resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed by a majority and agreed to by the Lok Sabha.

        Indian Polity - Union Legislature

        Introduction

        • The Union Legislature of India is not only the lawmaking body, but the center of all democratic political process.

        • The Parliament is the central legislature and the legislature of the state is known as ‘State Legislature.’

        • The Parliament of India is bicameral (i.e. consists of two houses) namely Rajya Sabha (the Council of States) and Lok Sabha (the House of the People).

        • Indian states also have the option to have either bicameral or unicameral; however, at present, there are seven states (shown in the map given below), which have bicameral legislature namely −

          • Jammu & Kashmir,
          • Uttar Pradesh,
          • Bihar,
          • Maharashtra,
          • Karnataka,
          • Andhra Pradesh, and
          • Telangana.

        Rajya Sabha

        • The Rajya Sabha is an indirectly elected body and represents the States of India.

        • The elected members of State Legislative Assembly elect the members of Rajya Sabha.

        • In the U.S.A, every state has equal representation in the Senate irrespective of size and population of the states, but in India, it is not the same.

        • In India, states with larger size of population get more representatives than states with smaller population. For example, Uttar Pradesh (the most populated state) sends 31 members to Rajya Sabha; on the other hand, Sikkim (the least populated state) sends only one member to Rajya Sabha.

        • The number of members to be elected from each State has been fixed by the fourth schedule of the Constitution.

        • Members of the Rajya Sabha are elected for a term of six years and then they can be re-elected.

        • Members of Rajya Sabha are elected in such a manner that they do not complete their tenure altogether; rather after every two years, one-third member complete their term and elections are held for those one-third seats only.

        • Likewise, the Rajya Sabha never gets fully dissolved and hence, it is known as the permanent House of the Parliament.

        • Apart from the elected members, the President appoints 12 members from the fields of literature, science, art, and social service.

        Lok Sabha

        • The members of Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assemblies are directly elected by the people for the period of five years.

        • However, before the completion of tenure, if the Lok Sabha is dissolved (no party forms government with majority), a fresh election will be conducted again.

        Functions of the Parliament

        • The Parliament has legislative (law making) and financial functions (money bill and budgetary function); besides, it also controls the Executive and ensures its accountability.

        • The Parliament is the highest forum of debate in the country and hence, there is no limitation on its power of discussion.

        • The Parliament has the power of discussing and enacting changes to the Constitution (i.e. amendment power).

        • The Parliament also performs some electoral functions, as it elects the President and the Vice President of India.

        • The Parliament has also judicial functions, as it considers and decides the proposals for the removal of President, Vice-President, and Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts.

        • Following are the some distinct powers of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha −

          • Lok Sabha makes ‘Laws’ on matters included in Union List and Concurrent List and can introduce and enact money and non-money bills.

          • Rajya Sabha considers and approves non-money bills and suggests amendments to money bills.

          • Lok Sabha approves proposals for taxation, budgets, and annual financial statements.

          • Rajya Sabha approves constitutional amendments.

          • Lok Sabha establishes committees and commissions and considers their reports.

          • Rajya Sabha can give the Union parliament power to make laws on matters included in the State list.

        Special Powers of Rajya Sabha

        • Rajya Sabha has some special powers. If the Union Parliament wishes to remove a matter from the State list (over which only the State Legislature can make law) to either the Union List or Concurrent List in the interest of the nation, the approval of the Rajya Sabha is essential.

        Special Powers of Lok Sabha

        • Regarding Money Bills, the Lok Sabha has the exclusive power and hence, the Rajya Sabha cannot initiate, reject, or amend money bills.

        • Amendment/s made by the Rajya Sabha to the Money Bill may or may not be accepted by the Lok Sabha.

        Bills

        • A bill proposed by a minister is described as Government Bill; however, if a bill proposed by a non-minister member, it is known as private member’s Bill.

        • If there is disagreement between the two Houses on a proposed Bill, then it is resolved through the Joint Session of Parliament.

        • Regarding the Money Bill, if the Rajya Sabha does not take any action within 14 days, the bill is deemed to have been passed.

        Other Facts

        • Zero Hour is a special part of Question Hour where the members are free to raise any matter that they think is important; however, the ministers are not bound to reply.

        • Deliberation and discussion, Approval or Refusal of laws, financial control, No confidence motion, are different instruments of Parliamentary control.

        • Standing Committees, Joint Parliamentary Committees, etc. are the important committees of the Parliament; their main functions are studying the demands for grants made by various ministries, looking into expenditure incurred by various departments, investigating cases of corruption, etc.

        • An amendment to the Constitution (52nd amendment act) was made in 1985, popularly known as an anti-defection amendment.

        • According to anti-defection amendment, there was an agreement among the parties that a legislator who is elected on one party’s ticket must be restricted from ‘defecting’ to another party.

        • The presiding officer of the House is the authority who can take the final decisions on all anti-defection cases.

        • If a member remains absent in the House when asked by the party leadership to be present or votes against the instructions of the party or voluntarily leaves the membership of the party, it is tantamount to defection.

        Prime Minister and Council of Ministers

        • The Council of Ministers is one the most powerful political institutions in the country. Prime Minister is the head of the Council of Ministers (as well as the central government).

        • There is no direct election to the post of the Prime Minister (PM), but the Prime Minister is chosen normally from the elected MPs.

        • The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of India. The President appoints a person as Prime Minister who is the leader of the party having the majority in the Lok Sabha.

        • The Prime Minister continues in power for five-year term OR so long as he commands the majority party or coalition.

        • The President appoints other ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister.

        • The Prime Minister is free to choose his ministers from the members of Parliament.

        • A person who is not a Member of Parliament can also become a minister. But such a person has to get elected to one of the Houses of the Parliament within six months of appointment as minister.

        • All the Ministers collectively in a group are officially called as Council of Ministers; however, the Ministers have different ranks and portfolio.

        • The different categories of the ministers are −

          • Cabinet Ministers are the most experienced and top-level leaders of the ruling party. They usually hold the charge of the major ministries like Finance, Defense, Home, External Affairs, Food and Supply, etc. The decisions of the government are generally taken up in the meeting of the Cabinet Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. Thus the Cabinet is the core group of ministers within the Council of Ministers.

          • Ministers of State with independent charge usually hold independent charge of smaller Ministries. They generally do not participate in the Cabinet meetings but may participate when specially invited.

          • Ministers of State are generally appointed to assist Cabinet Ministers.

        Indian Polity - Local Government

        Introduction

        • Local government is the government of the village and district level. It is the government closest to the common people that involves in day-to-day life and attempt to resolve problems of ordinary citizens.

        • Democracy is in fact about meaningful participation and also about accountability. Hence, strong and vibrant local governments ensure both active participation and purposeful accountability.

        • The hierarchy of different levels of Governments (of India) is shown in the following image −

        Evolution of Local Government

        • In 1882, Lord Rippon, the-then Viceroy of India, took the initiative to form elected local government body.

        • Following the Government of India Act 1919, village Panchayats were established in many provinces and the trend continued after the Government of India Act of 1935.

        • When the Constitution was prepared, the subject of local government was assigned to the States and it was one of the provisions of the Directive Principles of State Policy.

        • After the independence, a three-tier Panchayati Raj system of local government was recommended for the rural areas; resultantly, some of the states including Gujarat and Maharashtra adopted the system of elected local bodies (1960).

        • After 1987, a thorough review of the functioning of local government institutions was initiated and in 1989, the P. K. Thungon Committee recommended constitutional recognition to the local government bodies.

        • Finally, in 1992, the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments were passed by the Parliament.

        • The 73rd Amendment is about the rural local governments, which are also known as Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).

        • The 74th Amendment made the provisions relating to the urban local government (also known as Nagarpalikas).

        Panchayati Raj

        • Following the 73rd Amendment, all states now have a uniform three tier Panchayati Raj structure as −

          • Gram Panchayat − At the bottom level;

          • Mandal (also known as Block or Taluka) − Intermediary level; and

          • Zilla Panchayat − At the top level.

        • A Gram Panchayat covers a village or group of villages.

        • The intermediary level is the Mandal covers Block (i.e. a group of gram panchayat).

        • The Zilla Panchayat covers the entire rural area of the District.

        • All the three levels of Panchayati Raj Institutions are elected directly by the people for five years term.

        • One-third of the positions in all panchayat institutions are reserved for the women.

        • Twenty-nine subjects (of 11th Schedule of the Constitution), which were earlier in the State list, are transferred to the Panchayati Raj Institutions.

        • The 73rd Amendment was not made applicable to the areas inhabited by the Adivasi populations in many states of India; however, a separate provision was passed in 1996 for these areas.

        • The State government is required to appoint a State Election Commissioner (independent of Election Commission of India) who would be responsible for conducting elections in the Panchayati Raj Institutions.

        • The state government is required to appoint a State Finance Commission once in five years.

        Nagarpalika

        • The 74th Amendment dealt with urban local bodies (Nagarpalikas or Municipality).

        • The Census of India defines an urban area as −

          • A minimum population of 5,000;

          • At least 75% of male working population engaged in non-agricultural occupations, and

          • A density of population is at least 400 persons per sq. km.

        • As per the 2011 census (provisional data), about 31 percent of India’s population lives in urban areas.

        • Many provisions of 74th Amendment are similar to 73rd Amendment.

        • The functions of Nagarpalika have been listed in the Twelfth Schedule of the Constitution.

        • The Indian population has 16.2 percent Scheduled Castes (SC) and 8.2 per cent Scheduled Tribes (ST) and accordingly, the seats for both SC and ST are reserved in local government.

        Indian Polity - Judiciary

        Introduction

        • Judiciary is an independent body that protects and ensures the ‘rule of law.’
        • Any other organs of the government including the executive and legislature must not restrain the functioning of the judiciary.

        • The judicial system in India is in the form of an integrated judiciary, which consists of a Supreme Court for the whole nation, High Courts in each state, and District Courts and the courts at the local level (as shown in the diagram given below).

        • The Supreme Court controls the judicial administration and the judgments of the Supreme Court are binding on all other courts of the country.

        Judges of Supreme Court

        • The Judges of the Supreme Court (and the High Courts) are appointed by the President (of India) after ‘consulting’ the Chief Justice of India (CJI).

        • Normally, the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court of India is appointed as the Chief Justice of India (CJI); however, this convention was broken two times −

          • In 1973, A. N. Ray was appointed as CJI superseding three senior Judges and

          • In 1975, Justice M.H. Beg was appointed superseding Justice H.R. Khanna.

        • A judge of the Supreme Court (or High Courts) can be removed only on the ground of proven misbehavior or incapacity.

        • A motion containing the charges against the judge must be approved by special majority in both the Houses of Parliament; only then a judge can be removed.

        Jurisdictions of Supreme Court

        • The Supreme Court of India acts as the highest court of appeal in civil and criminal cases. It hears appeals against the decisions of the High Courts. However, the Supreme Court hears any case if it pleases to do so.

        • The Supreme Court has got jurisdiction to take up any dispute such as −

          • Between citizens of the country;

          • Between citizens and government;

          • Between two or more state governments; and

          • Between governments at the union and state level.

        • The Supreme Court and the High Courts are the custodian of our constitution. They have the power to interpret the Constitution of the country.

        • The Supreme Court can declare any law of the legislature or the actions of the executive unconstitutional if such a law or action is against the provisions of the Constitution.

        • The Supreme Court has ‘Original Jurisdiction’. It means – some cases can be directly considered by the Supreme Court without going to the lower courts.

        • The Supreme Court has ‘Writ Jurisdiction’. It means - any individual, whose fundamental right has been violated, can directly go to the Supreme Court for appropriate remedy.

        • The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal (Appellate Jurisdiction). It means - a person can appeal to the Supreme Court against the decisions of the High Court.

        • The Supreme Court has ‘Advisory Jurisdiction’. It means - the President of India can refer any matter that is of public importance or involves interpretation of Constitution to Supreme Court for advice.

        • Article of 137 of the Constitution states that the Supreme Court shall have the power to review any judgment pronounced or order made by it.

        • Article 144 of the Constitution states that all authorities, civil and judicial, in the territory of India shall act in aid of the Supreme Court.

        • The chief instrument through which judicial activism has come into existence in India is Public Interest Litigation (PIL) or Social Action Litigation (SAL).

        • When a case is filed not by aggrieved people, but rather on their behalf, someone else, as it involves a consideration of an issue of public interest, hence, it is known as Public Interest Litigation (PIL) or Social Action Litigation (SAL).

        Rights of the Supreme Court

        • The two most important rights of Judiciary are −

          • It can restore fundamental rights by issuing writs of Habeas Corpus; mandamus etc. under Article 32 of the Constitution and the same action can be taken by the High Courts as well under the Article 226 of Constitution.

          • Under Article 13 of the Constitution - the Supreme Court can declare the concerned law as unconstitutional and therefore non-operational.

        • The Judicial Review (JR) is one of the most important powers of the Supreme Court.

        • Judicial Review means the power of the Supreme Court to examine the constitutionality of any law; so, if the Court arrives at the conclusion that the aforesaid law is inconsistent with the provisions of the Constitution, such a law is declared as unconstitutional and inapplicable.

        • The Supreme Court (and the High Courts) has the power to check the Constitutional validity of any legislation or action of the executive, when it is challenged before them. This power is called judicial review.

        • The Supreme Court of India also guards the Constitution against any change in its basic principles by the Parliament.

        • The independence and powers exercised by the Indian judiciary in India make the Supreme Court to act as the guardian of the Fundamental Rights.

        • The Indian Constitution is based on a subtle principle of limited separation of powers and checks and balances, which means - each organ of the government has a clear area of functioning. For example,

          • The Parliament is supreme in making laws and amending the Constitution;

          • The Executive is supreme in implementing the laws; and

          • The judiciary is supreme in settling disputes and deciding whether the laws that have been made are in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.

        • In a landmark judgment of Kesavananda Bharati case (1973), the Supreme Court ruled that there is a ‘Basic Structure’ of the Constitution and nobody — not even the Parliament (through amendment)— can violate the basic structure.

        • In Kesavananda Bharati case, the Supreme Court did two things −

          • It said that right to property was not part of the basic structure and therefore could be suitably amended.

          • The Court reserved to itself the right to decide whether various matters are part of the basic structure of the Constitution.

        Indian Polity - Federal System

        Introduction

        • Federalism is an institutional mechanism to accommodate two sets of polities, i.e., first is the center or national level and second is at the provincial or regional level. Both the sets of polities are autonomous in its own sphere.

        • Each level of the polity has distinct powers and responsibilities and has a separate system of government.

        • The details of this federalism or dual system of government are generally found in a written constitution.

        • Written Constitution is considered to be supreme and also the source of the power of both sets of government.

        • Certain subjects, which are the concern of a nation as a whole, for example, defense or currency, are the responsibility of the union or central government.

        • On the other hand, regional or local matters are the responsibility of the regional or state government.

        • In case of a conflict between the center and the state on any issue, the judiciary has the powers to resolve the disputes.

        • Though the Indian Constitution does not use the word ‘federalism’ anywhere; however, the structure of Indian government is divided into two sets of governments i.e.

          • For the entire nation known as the ‘Union Government’ (or central government) and

          • For each unit or state known as the ‘State Government.’

        The following diagram illustrates the basic structure of “Federal System” −

        Subjects of Federal System

        • The Constitution clearly demarcates subjects, which are under the exclusive domain of the Union and those under the exclusive of States.

        • Likewise, the Constitution describes three lists −

          • Union List (subjects dealt by only Central Government);

          • State List (subjects dealt normally by States only); and

          • Concurrent List (both Union and State have the power to legislate these subjects).

        Union List

        • Subjects of Union List are −
          • Defense
          • Atomic Energy
          • Foreign Affairs
          • War and Peace
          • Banking
          • Railways
          • Post and Telegraph
          • Airways
          • Ports
          • Foreign Trade
          • Currency & Coinage

        State List

        • Subjects of State Lists are −
          • Agriculture
          • Police
          • Prison
          • Local Government
          • Public Heath
          • Land
          • Liquor
          • Trade and Commerce
          • Livestock and Animal Husbandry
          • State Public Services

        Concurrent List

        • Subjects of Concurrent Lists are −
          • Education
          • Transfer of Property other than Agricultural land
          • Forests
          • Trade Unions
          • Adulteration
          • Adoption and Succession

        Other Facts

        • Article 257 of the Constitution is read as: The executive power of every State shall be so exercised as not to impede or prejudice the exercise of the executive power of the Union, and the executive power of the Union shall extend to the giving of such directions to a State as may appear to the Government of India to be necessary for that purpose.

        • The Sarkaria Commission was appointed by the central government in 1983 to examine the issues relating to center-State relations; the Commission submitted its report in 1988 and recommended that appointments of Governors should be strictly non-partisan.

        • In 1953, the States Reorganization Commission was set up and it recommended the creation of linguistic States, at least for the major linguistic groups.

        • Resultantly, Gujarat and Maharashtra were created in 1960 and the process is still going on.

        • The Constitution of India (under Article 371) has given some special provisions for some States after considering their peculiar social and historical circumstances. However, most of the special provisions are related to the north eastern States (i.e. Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, etc.) largely due to a sizeable indigenous tribal population with a distinct history and culture.

        • Under Article 370 of the Constitution, the northern most state Jammu and Kashmir has also special provisions.

        • One of the major differences between the other States and the State of J&K are that no emergency due to internal disturbances can be declared in J&K without the concurrence of the State.

        • The Union Government cannot impose a financial emergency in J&K and the Directive Principles also do not apply in J&K.

        • An amendment to the Indian Constitution (under Art. 368) can only apply in concurrence with the government of J&K.

        Indian Polity - Center State Relation

        Introduction

        • Articles 245 to 263 of Part XI and Articles 268 to 293 of Part XII describe three types of Center-State relations i.e. Legislative, Administrative, and Financial.

        Legislative Relations

        • Articles 245 to 255 describe Legislative relations.

        • Article 245 (1) states that Subject to the provisions of this Constitution, Parliament may make laws for the whole or any part of the territory of India, and the Legislature of a State may make laws for the whole or any part of the State.

        • Article 245 (2) states that no law made by Parliament shall be deemed to be invalid on the ground that it would have extra-territorial operation.

        • Article 246 states that the Parliament has exclusive power to make laws with respect to any of the matters enumerated in List I (i.e. Union List) and List III (i.e. Concurrent List) of the Seventh Schedule.

        • Article 248 states that the Parliament has exclusive power to make any law with respect to any matter not enumerated in the Concurrent List or State List.

        • Further, Article 250 states that notwithstanding anything in this Chapter, Parliament shall, while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation, have power to make laws for the whole or any part of the territory of India with respect to any of the matters enumerated in the State List.

        Administrative Relations

        • Articles 255 to 263 describe Legislative relations.

        • Article 256 states that the executive power of every State shall be so exercised as to ensure compliance with the laws made by Parliament and any existing laws which apply in that State, and the executive power of the Union shall extend to the giving of such directions to a State as may appear to the Government of India to be necessary for that purpose.

        • Article 257 (1) states that the executive power of every State shall be so exercised as not to impede or prejudice the exercise of the executive power of the Union, and the executive power of the Union shall extend to the giving of such directions to a State as may appear to the Government of India to be necessary for that purpose.

        • Article 258 (2) states that a law made by Parliament which applies in any State may, notwithstanding that it relates to a matter with respect to which the Legislature of the State has no power to make laws, confer powers and impose duties, or authorize the conferring of powers and the imposition of duties, upon the State or officers and authorities thereof.

        • Article 261 (3) states that final judgments or orders delivered or passed by civil courts in any part of the territory of India shall be capable of execution anywhere within that territory according to law.

        • Article 262 (1) states that Parliament may by law provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint with respect to the use, distribution or control of the waters of, or in, any inter-State river or river valley.

        • Article 262 (2) states that notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, Parliament may be law provide that neither the Supreme Court nor any other court shall exercise jurisdiction in respect of any such dispute or complaint as is referred to in clause (1).

        Financial Relations

        • Articles 268 to 293 describe Financial relations.

        • Article 268 describes the Duties levied by the Union but collected and appropriated by the States.

        • Article 269 describes the Taxes levied and collected by the Union but assigned to the States.

        • Article 270 describes the Taxes levied and distributed between the Union and the States.

        Indian Polity - Emergency Provision

        Introduction

        • PART XVIII and Articles 352 to 360 describe the emergency provisions of India.

        • Under the Indian Constitution, there are three types of emergency provisions −

          • National Emergency;

          • Failure of constitutional machinery in state/s or President’s Rule; and

          • Financial Emergency.

        National Emergency

        • Article 352 states that if the President is satisfied that a grave emergency exists whereby the security of India or of any part of the territory thereof is threatened, whether by war or external aggression or armed rebellion, he may, by Proclamation, make a declaration to that effect in respect of the whole of India or of such part of the territory thereof as may be specified in the Proclamation.

        • However, Article 352 (4) states that every Proclamation issued under this article shall be laid before each House of Parliament and shall, except where it is a Proclamation revoking a previous Proclamation, cease to operate at the expiration of one month unless before the expiration of that period it has been approved by resolutions of both Houses of Parliament.

        • Further, Article 352 (5) states that a Proclamation so approved shall, unless revoked, cease to operate on the expiration of a period of six months from the date of the passing of the second of the resolutions approving the Proclamation under clause (4).

        • Article 353 states that while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation, then the executive power of the Union shall extend to the giving of directions to any State as to the manner in which the executive power thereof is to be exercised.

        Failure of constitutional machinery in state/s or President’s Rule

        • Article 356 states that if the President, on receipt of a report from the Governor of a State or otherwise, is satisfied that a situation has arisen in which the Government of the State cannot be carried on in accordance with the provisions of this Constitution, then he (the President) may issue state emergency.

        • Article 356 (3) states that every Proclamation under this article shall be laid before each House of Parliament and shall, except where it is a Proclamation revoking a previous Proclamation, cease to operate at the expiration of two months unless before the expiration of that period it has been approved by resolutions of both Houses of Parliament.

        • Further, Article 356 (4) states that a Proclamation so approved shall, unless revoked, cease to operate on the expiration of a period of six months from the date of issue of the Proclamation.

        • Article 357 states that where by a Proclamation issued under clause (1) of Article 356, it has been declared that the powers of the Legislature of the State shall be exercisable by or under the authority of Parliament.

        • Article 359 states that where a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation, the President may by order declare that the right to move any court for the enforcement of such of the rights conferred by Part III (except articles 20 and 21) as may be mentioned in the order and all proceedings pending in any court for the enforcement of the rights so mentioned shall remain suspended for the period during which the Proclamation is in force or for such shorter period as may be specified in the order.

        Financial Emergency

        • Article 360 states that if the President is satisfied that a situation has arisen whereby the financial stability or credit of India or of any part of the territory thereof is threatened, he may by a Proclamation make a declaration to that effect.

        • Article 360 (4) (b) states that it shall be competent for the President during the period any Proclamation issued under this article is in operation to issue directions for the reduction of salaries and allowances of all or any class of persons serving in connection with the affairs of the Union including the Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts.

        Indian Polity - Elections System

        Introduction

        • In India, there are three levels of government, i.e.,

          • Center level,
          • State level, and
          • Local level.
        • At center level, elections are conducted to elect Member of Parliament, which is known as Lok Sabha elections.

        • For Lok Sabha election, the whole country is divided into 543 constituencies and each constituency elects one representative as a Member of Parliament (MP).

        • At the State level, an election is called assembly election; however, unlike center, each state is divided into a different specific number of Assembly constituencies.

        • The elected representative in the assembly election is called as the Member of Legislative Assembly (MLA).

        • Similarly, at the local level, elections are held for the election of Pradhan in Panchayat (rural) areas and counselor in Municipal (urban) areas.

        • Each village or town is divided into several ‘wards’ (similar to constituencies) and each ward elects one member of the village or the urban local body respectively.

        Reserved Constituencies

        • Every citizen of India has the right to vote to elect a representative as well as to be elected as a representative.

        • To provide a fair opportunity to a candidate belonging to weaker sections in an open electoral competition (against those who are influential and resourceful), a system of ‘reserved’ constituency is adopted.

        • The reserved system ensures equal opportunity to all and provides a real choice of election to the voters from weaker sections.

        • Some constituencies are reserved for the people belonging to the Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) in a proportion of their population in the respective regions.

        • In a reserved constituency, only the persons belonging to the reserved category are eligible to contest an election.

        • As on 1 September 2012, 84 seats were reserved for SC Category and 47 seats were reserved for ST Category in Lok Sabha.

        • Similarly, 33% of the seats are reserved in rural and urban local bodies for women candidates.

        Voting System

        • The principle of a universal adult franchise is the foundation of the democracy that gives every citizen a right to have one vote and each vote should have equal value.

        • Every citizen of 18 years or more has the right to vote, irrespective of his caste, religion, gender, educational qualification, financial status, etc.

        • To ensure that not even a single person is denied of this basic right for any reason whatsoever, a list of all voters (eligible to vote) is prepared. This list is officially called as the Electoral Roll or the Voters’ List.

        • The voters’ list is provided to the voters of each constituency much before the election for the purpose of inspection and correction.

        • On the day of election, the people cast their votes as per their names mentioned in the voter list.

        • This method ensures that not a single person is denied his/her right to vote and thus everyone should get an equal opportunity to choose their representatives.

        • The government is responsible to update the voter’s list before the election; new names of all the eligible voters are added to the voters’ list and names of those who move out from their residential place or those who have been died are deleted.

        • A complete revision of the voter’s list takes place every five years.

        Nomination of Candidates

        • In a democratic country, a system of free and fair election provides the people of every section a real choice to vote and a fair chance to contest. There are no restrictions on anyone to contest an election except in reserved constituencies.

        • To contest an election, a candidate should be of 25 years (or more) of age with sound mind and no criminal background.

        • Political parties introduce their candidates and give them the party ‘ticket’.

        • A candidate who wishes to contest an election has to fill a ‘nomination form’ and deposit some money as ‘security fees.’

        • Besides, the Supreme Court has also given directions that every contesting candidate has to disclose his/her personal information to the voters. So that the voter can choose a right candidate on the basis of given information.

        • Following the directions of the Supreme Court, the Election Commission of India put in place a system of a declaration on an affidavit.

        • The proposed candidate has to make a legal declaration, giving full details of his −

          • Criminal cases pending against the candidate;

          • Details of the assets and liabilities of the candidate and his or her family;

          • Education qualifications of the candidate.

        Educational Qualifications for Candidates

        • In the Indian political system, educational qualification is not required, either for the voters or for the contesting candidates.

        • Politics in India does not require educational qualifications of a person for selection to be a leader. It is just like the criteria for selection in a cricket team, the ability of the player to play cricket and not his educational qualification.

        • The essential qualification for an MLA or an MP in politics is their ability to understand people’s concerns, problems, and to represent their interests.

        • It is left upon the voters to decide whether their representative is qualified to understand their problems and able to solve them.

        Election Campaign

        • The main purpose of an election is to give the people a chance to choose their representatives and make a government of their choice who frames policies to address their concerns.

        • During election campaigns, voters get the opportunity to have a free and open discussion about who is a better candidate, which party can give a better government, or what are their policies.

        • In India, election campaigns take place for two weeks period between the announcement of the final list of candidates and the date of polling.

        • During campaigns, the political leaders address election rallies and political parties mobilize their supporters.

        • The contesting candidates contact their voters through various methods such as −

          • They advertise in newspapers, radio, television, etc.;

          • They publish pamphlets and distribute them in their respective constituencies;

          • They arrange rallies and give speeches at every public place of their constituencies;

          • They tell their voters about their plan and policies and also ask about their (voters’) problems.

          • They try to convince their voters in their favor and appeal them to vote and elect the right candidate.

        Code of Conduct

        • The Indian election system is based on the law, which provides a code of conduct for every person contesting an election.

        • If any political party or candidate violates this code of conduct, his/her election can be rejected by the court even after they have been declared elected.

        • This code of conduct states that no party or candidate can −

          • Bribe or threaten voters;

          • Appeal/mesmerize them (voters) in the name of caste or religion;

          • Use government resources for election campaign;

          • Spend more than Rs.25 lakh in a constituency for a Lok Sabha election;

          • Spend more than Rs.10 lakh in a constituency for an Assembly election.

        • In addition to the laws, all the political parties in India have agreed to a Model Code of Conduct for election campaigns. According to this, no party or candidate can −

          • Use any place of worship for election propaganda;

          • Use government vehicles, aircraft, and officials for elections;

          • Once elections are announced, Ministers shall not lay foundation stones of any projects;

          • Take any big policy decisions or make any promises of providing public facilities.

        • Any violation of any rule needs to be reported to the Election Commission, which has sufficient power and authority to take appropriate action against the violators.

        Polling and Counting of Votes

        • The Election Commission of India prepares a timetable for election. A particular day is fixed for polling in a particular constituency. This is called election day, usually, it is declared as a holiday.

        • Voters whose name is on the voters’ list go to a nearby ‘polling booth’ and cast their vote one by one.

        • Inside the polling booth, the election officials identify the voter as per their name in the voter list (and also check their Identity Card).

        • After identifying the right voter, the election officials put a mark on the left hand index finger, and then allow to cast a vote.

        • Polling officers keep the records of those who have cast their votes and maintain a proper register.

        • A ballot paper is a sheet of paper comprising a list of names of all the contesting candidates along with party name and symbols.

        • Earlier, the voters used to mark their choice by putting a stamp on the ballot paper against the name and mark of the candidate of their choice.

        • Nowadays, electronic voting machines (EVM) are used to cast the votes; the machine shows the names of the candidate and the party symbols (as shown in the given image).

        • A voter needs to press the button against the name of the candidate who he/she wants to elect.

        • Once the polling is over, all the EVMs are sealed and taken to a centralized place where all the EVMs are kept and later on, votes were counted.

        Independent Election Commission

        • Elections in our country are conducted through a powerful and independent institution called the Election Commission of India.

        • The Election Commission of India is a constitutional body which is an autonomous body independent of the government. It enjoys the same kind of independence like the judges of the Supreme Court of India.

        • The Chief Election Commission of India (CEC) is appointed by the President of India, but after his appointment, the Chief Election Commissioner is not answerable to the President or the government.

        • In a matter of election, it has been given wide powers to conduct free and fair election. They actively use these powers to form fair government.

        • The government or the ruling party has no occasion to influence or pressurize the election commission.

        Role of Election Commission

        • The Election Commission takes decisions on every aspect related to the election from the announcement of elections to the declaration of results.

        • The Election Commission supervises and controls the administration of elections. It checks and correct any fault immediately.

        • The Election Commission implements the Code of Conduct and punishes any candidate or party who is found guilty of any violation.

        • During the election period, the Election Commission acquires powers to order the government to follow settled guidelines to prevent use and misuse of governmental power to enhance its chances to win elections, or to transfer some government officials.

        • All the officers and staff of the government that is put on election duty works under the control of the Election Commission and not under the government.

        Acceptance of Election Outcome

        • The electoral outcomes in India are usually accepted as people’s verdict by the defeated candidates or party.

        • The test of the free and fair election in India manifested in the outcome of the election result.

        • In India, the result of election frequently changes the ruling government, which clearly illustrates that the elections in India are free and fair.

        • The ruling parties routinely lose elections in India, both at the national and state level. In fact, in every two out of the three elections held in the last fifteen years, the ruling party lost.

        Indian Polity - Political Parties

        Introduction

        • Indian governance system has multi-party system and the political parties are categorized as −

          • National Political Party;
          • State or Regional (level) Political Party.
        • The recognition and status of political parties are reviewed and authorized by the Election Commission of India.

        Eligibility of National Political Party

        • However, to be eligible for a ‘National Political Party of India,’ the Election Commission has set the following criteria −

          • It secures at least six percent of the valid votes polled in any four or more states, at a general election to the House of the People or, to the State Legislative Assembly; and

          • In addition, it wins at least four seats in the House of the People from any State or States.

            OR

          • It wins at least two percent seats in the House of the People (i.e., 11 seats in the existing House having 543 members), and these members are elected from at least three different States.

        Eligibility of State Political Party

        • To be eligible for a ‘State Political Party,’ the Election Commission has set the following criteria −

          • It secures at least six percent of the valid votes polled in the State at a general election, either to the House of the People or to the Legislative Assembly of the State concerned; and

          • In addition, it wins at least two seats in the Legislative Assembly of the State concerned.

            OR

          • It wins at least three percent (3%) of the total number of seats in the Legislative Assembly of the State, or at least three seats in the Assembly, whichever is more.

        • The following table illustrates the major National Political Parties of India −

        Political Party Name Abbreviation Founded in Current Leader
        Indian National Congress INC 1885 Sonia Gandhi
        Communist Party of India CPI 1925 Suravaram Sudhakar Reddy
        Communist Party of India (Marxist) CPI -M 1964 Sitaram Yechury
        Bharatiya Janata Party BJP 1980 Amit Shah
        Bahujan Samaj Party BSP 1985 Mayavati

        Indian Polity - Constitutional Amendments

        • Under Article 368 (specific provision) of the Constitution, the Parliament is the repository of the constituent power of the Union and hence, it can amend the Constitutional provision as per the requirement/s (within the circumscribed limit).

        • Article 368 (1) states that notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, the Parliament may exercise its constituent power amend by way of addition, variation or repeal any provision of this Constitution in accordance with the procedure laid down in this article.

        • Article 368 (2) states that an amendment of this Constitution may be initiated only by the introduction of a Bill for the purpose in either House of Parliament, and when the Bill is passed in each House by a majority of the total membership of that House and by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members of that House present and voting, it shall be presented to the President who shall give his assent to the Bill and thereupon the Constitution shall stand amended in accordance with the terms of the Bill.

        • Article 368 (4) states that no amendment of this Constitution (including the provisions of Part III) made or purporting to have been made under this article whether before or after the commencement of section 55 of the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976 shall be called in question in any court on any ground.

        • Article 368 (5) states that for the removal of doubts, it is hereby declared that there shall be no limitation whatever on the constituent power of Parliament to amend by way of addition, variation or repeal the provisions of this Constitution under this article.

        Indian Polity - Constitutional Schedules

        • Primarily, there were only eight Schedules; however, four schedules were added after subsequent amendments.

        Summary of all twelve schedules is illustrated in the following table −

        Schedules Parts Lists
        Schedule I Part I List of the States.
        Part II List of the Union.
        Schedule II Part A Provisions as to the President and the Governors of States.
        Part B Repealed
        Part C Provisions as to the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the House of the People and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Council of States and the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council of a State.
        Part D Provisions as to the Judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts.
        Part E Provisions as to the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.
        Schedule III Forms of Oaths or Affirmations.
        Schedule IV Allocation of seats in the Council of States.
        Schedule V Provisions as to the Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes.
        Schedule VI Provisions as to the Administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram.
        Schedule VII List I Union List
        List II State List
        List III Concurrent List
        Schedule VIII

        List of 22 Languages −

        1. Assamese 2. Bengali 3. Gujarati
        4. Hindi 5. Kannada 6. Kashmiri
        7. Malayalam 8. Marathi 9. Oriya
        10. Punjabi 11. Sanskrit 12. Tamil
        13. Telugu 14. Urdu 15. Sindhi
        16. Konkani 17. Manipuri 18. Nepali
        19. Santhali 20. Bodo 21. Maithili
        22. Dogri

        Initially, there were only 14 languages, but after 21st Amendment (1967) Sindhi was added; after 71st Amendment (1992), Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali added; and after 92nd Amendment (2003), Santhali, Bodo, Maithili, and Dogri added.

        Schedule IX Added by 1st Amendment in 1951 Contains acts & orders related to land tenure, land tax, railways, industries (Right of property not a fundamental right).
        Schedule X Added by 52nd Amendment in 1985 Provisions as to disqualification on ground of defection.
        Schedule XI Added by 73rd Amendment in 1992 Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats.
        Schedule XII Added by 74th Amendment in 1992 Powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities, etc.

        Indian Polity - Separation of Powers

        • The principle of separation of powers has not been placed clearly in Indian Constitution; however, the separate functions of the three specified Organs (i.e. Executive, Parliament, and Judiciary) are specified.

        • Among all the three Organs, no one is superior to the other, and one cannot control the other, in any manner, but rather all three Organs need to work in harmony.

        • Article 50 of the Constitution separates the Executive from the Judiciary.

        • Article 53 (1) states that the executive power of the Union shall be vested in the President and shall be exercised by him either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with this Constitution.

        • Further, the President, being the executive head of the country, is also empowered to exercise legislative powers in certain condition (Article 123).

        • Article 73 (a) states that the Parliament has power to make laws; and (b) to the exercise of such rights, authority, and jurisdiction as are exercisable by the Government of India by virtue of any treaty or agreement.

        • The function of the Judiciary is to Review the action of the legislature and the Executive.

        • Further, Article 121 states that no discussion shall take place in Parliament with respect to the conduct of any Judge of the Supreme Court or of a High Court in the discharge of his duties except upon a motion for presenting an address to the President praying for the removal of the Judge as hereinafter provided.

        • Article 122 (1) states that the validity of any proceedings in the Parliament shall not be called in question on the ground of any alleged irregularity of procedure.

        • However, there are some check and balance fabricated in the Constitution to balance the power among these three Organs.

        Indian Polity - Parts of Constitution

        The given table describes the details of ‘Parts’ of the Constitution of India −

        Part I The Union and its Territory Article (1 to 4)
        Part II Citizenship Article (5 to 11)
        Part III Fundamental Rights Article (12 to 35)
        Part IV Directive Principles of State Policy Article (36 to 51)
        Part IVA Fundamental Duties Article (51A)
        Part V The Union Article (52 to 151)
        Part VI The States Article (152 to 237)
        Part VII The States in Part B of The First Schedule Article (238)
        Part VIII The Union Territories Article (239 to 243)
        Part IX Panchayats Article (243 to 243O)
        Part IXA Municipalities Article (243P to 243ZG)
        Part X The Schedule and Tribal Areas Article (244 to 244A)
        Part XI Relations between the Union and the States Article (245 to 263)
        Part XII Finance, Property, Contracts, and Suits Article (264 to 300A)
        Part XIII Trade, Commerce, and Intercourse within the Territory of India Article (301 to 307)
        Part XIV Service under the Union and the States Article (308 to 323)
        Part XIVA Tribunals Article (323A to 323B)
        Part XV Elections Article (324 to 329A)
        Part XVI Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes Article (330 to 342)
        Part XVII Official Language Article (343 to 351)
        Part XVIII Emergency Provisions Article (352 to 360)
        Part XIX Miscellaneous Article (361 to 367)
        Part XX Amendment Article (368)
        Part XXI Temporary, Transitional, and Special Provisions Article (369 to 392)
        Part XXII Short Title, Commencement, Authoritative Text in Hindi and Repeals Article (393 to 395)

        Indian Polity - International Organizations

        Introduction

        • The United Nations Organization or simply UNO/UN is regarded as the most important international organization in today’s world.

        • International organizations help with matters of war and peace as well as help countries create better living conditions for us all.

        • An international organization can help to produce information and ideas about how to cooperate each other experience overall growth.

        • An international organization can also provide mechanisms, rules, and a bureaucracy, to help members have more confidence that the costs will be shared properly and to benefit governments.

        • In 1945, the UN was founded as a successor to the League of Nations.

        • The UN’s perspective is to bring countries together to improve the prospects of social and economic development all over the world.

        Structure of the UNO

        • There are five important bodies of UNO, as shown in the following diagram −

        • In the UN Security Council, there are five permanent members and ten non-permanent members.

        • The five permanent members are −

          • The United States,
          • Russia,
          • The United Kingdom,
          • France, and
          • China.
        • All these five members have the veto power.

        • The non-permanent members serve for only two years at a time and give way to newly elected members.

        • The non-permanent members are elected in a manner so that they represent all continents of the world.

        • In the UN General Assembly, all members have one vote each.

        • The Secretary-General is the head of the UN.

        Functions of UN

        • The major functions of the UN are −

          • Creation of a Peacebuilding Commission.

          • Acceptance of the responsibility to the international community in case of failures of national governments to protect their own citizens from atrocities.

          • Establishment of a Human Rights Council (operational since 19 June 2006).

          • Condemnation of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations, etc.

        Agencies of UN

        • The UN consists of many different structures and agencies (collectively known as UN Family – shown in the map given below) and they have specialized role to play. For example −

          • World Health Organization (WHO),

          • United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),

          • United Nations Human Rights Commission (UNHRC),

          • United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR),

          • United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF),

          • United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), etc.

        Indian Polity - Environment & Politics

        Introduction

        • In the present world, cultivable area is barely expanding any more, and a substantial portion of existing agricultural land is losing fertility (transforming into barren land or desert).

        • Grasslands have been overgrazed; fisheries overharvested; water bodies have suffered extensive depletion; and pollution, severely restricting food production.

        • According to the Human Development Report 2006 of the United Nations Development Program −

          • About 1.2 billion people in developing countries have no access to safe water and

          • About 2.6 billion have no access to sanitation.

        • These problems collectively causing the death of more than three million children every year.

        • Natural forest’s areas are steadily decreasing across the world.

        • Depletion of ozone layer and global warming are other major threats to the ecosystems.

        • In the present context, the issues of environment and natural resources are political in deeper sense (and part of the world politics).

        International Programs

        • In 1972, the Club of Rome, a global think tank, published a book titled as “Limits to Growth,” dramatizing the potential depletion of the Earth’s resources against the backdrop of swiftly growing world population.

        • United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and other international and regional organizations began holding international conferences and promoting detailed studies to get a more coordinated and effective response to environmental problems, as it already became a significant issue of global politics.

        • The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992 (also known as the Earth Summit) was the beginning of international effort on global scale.

        • The Rio Summit produced conventions dealing with climate change, biodiversity, forestry, and recommended a list of development practices called ‘Agenda 21’.

        • First World, generally refer to the ‘global North’ were pursuing a different environmental agenda than the poor and developing countries of the Third World, called the ‘global South’.

        • Further, the Northern states are largely concerned with ozone depletion and global warming, the Southern states are anxious to address the relationship between economic development and environmental management.

        • Some critics however have pointed out that the Agenda 21 was biased in favor of economic growth rather than ensuring ecological conservation.

        • Commons’ in a global political sense are those resources, which are not owned by anyone, but rather shared by a community.

        • The areas or regions of the world, which are located outside the sovereign jurisdiction of any one state, and, therefore require common governance by the international community.

        • Examples of ‘global commons’ are the earth’s atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor (and the high seas i.e. beyond the 200 nautical miles from the respective coast), and outer space.

        • For the global consensus, there have been many path-breaking agreements such as the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, the 1987 Montreal Protocol, and the 1991 Antarctic Environmental Protocol.

        • However, a major problem underlying all ecological issues relates to the difficulty of achieving consensus on common environment.

        • The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) also discussed that the parties should act to protect the climate system “on the basis of equity and in accordance with their common, but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities.”

        • The Kyoto Protocol (1997, Kyoto, Japan) is an international agreement that sets targets for industrialized countries to cut their greenhouse gas emissions. However, India, China, and other developing countries are exempted.

        • India signed and ratified the 1997 Kyoto Protocol in August 2002.

        • The global economy relied on oil for much of the 20th century as a portable and indispensable fuel.

        • The World Council of Indigenous People was formed in 1975.

        Indian Polity - Globalization

        Introduction

        • It would be incorrect to assume that globalization has purely economic dimensions; it is a multidimensional concept, which includes political, economic, cultural, and ideological manifestations.

        • The impact of globalization is greatly uneven, as it affects some societies more than others and some parts of some societies more than others.

        • Globalization has a strong historical basis, and it is important to view contemporary flows against this backdrop.

        • The technological advancement is one of the most major causes of globalization.

        • WTO and IMF though are the major players, but Economic globalization involves many other factors as well.

        • What is often called economic globalization usually involves greater economic flows among different countries of the world.

        • Many economists and other experts are worried that globalization is likely to benefit only a small section of the population while impoverishing those who were dependent on the government for jobs and welfare (education, health, sanitation, etc.).

        • It has been emphasized that the policy would ensure institutional safeguards or create ‘social safety nets’ to minimize the negative effects of globalization on those who are economically weak.

        • Many experts believe that the social safety net is not sufficient to safeguard the needs of economically weak class. This is the reason that some economists and other scholars describe the globalization as “re-colonization.” However, supporters argue that greater trade among countries allows each economy to do what it does best and benefits every class of economy.

        • As per the cultural perspective, globalization leads to the rise of a uniform culture or what is called as cultural homogenization. For example, ‘McDonaldization.’

        • Cultural homogenization is dangerous not only for the poor countries, but also for the whole of humanity; it leads to the shrinking of the rich cultural heritage of the entire globe.

        Critics of Globalization

        • The critics of globalization make a variety of arguments such as −

          • The leftist people argue that contemporary globalization represents a particular phase of global capitalism that makes the rich richer (and fewer) and the poor poorer.

          • But it is interesting to note here that anti-globalization movements to participate in global networks, allying with those who feel like them in other countries.

          • Further, many anti-globalization movements are not opposed to the idea of globalization per se as much as they are opposed to a specific program of globalization, which they see as a form of imperialism.

          • For example, in 1999, at the World Trade Organization (WTO) Ministerial Meeting, it is argued that the interests of the developing world were not given sufficient importance in the evolving global economic system and policy.

        World Social Forum

        • The World Social Forum (WSF) is another global platform, which brings together a wide coalition composed of human rights activists, environmentalists, labor, youth, and women activists in order to oppose the neo-liberal globalization.

        • The first WSF meeting was organized in Porto Alegre, Brazil in 2001 and the fourth WSF meeting was held in Mumbai in 2004 and so on.

        • In India, there have been left wing protests to economic liberalization.

        • These leftist people voiced through political parties as well as through forums like the Indian Social Forum.

        • Trade unions of industrial workforce as well as those representing farmers’ interest have organized protests against the entry of multinationals.

        Indian Polity - Popular Movements

        Introduction

        • During the 1970s, in some parts of Uttarakhand, villagers protested against the practices of commercial logging that the government had permitted.

        • To protect the trees, the villagers used a novel tactic. They used to hug the trees to prevent them from being cut down; this method became popular as ‘Chipko Movement’ (as shown in the image given below).

        • The movement took up economic issues of landless forest workers and asked for guarantees of a minimum wage.

        • The movement achieved a victory when the government issued a ban on cutting of trees in the Himalayan regions for fifteen years, until the green cover was fully restored.

        • In spite of the impressive growth in many sectors of the economy in the first twenty years of independence, poverty and inequalities still remain a great problem; probably, because benefits of economic growth did not reach evenly to all sections of the society.

        Evolution of Voluntary Organizations

        • Many of the politically active groups lost their faith in existing democratic institutions and electoral politics and some groups therefore chose to step outside of party politics and got engage in mass mobilization for registering their protests.

        • The middle class young activists launched service organizations and constructive programs among rural poor.

        • As these works were voluntary in nature (social work), many of these organizations came to known as voluntary organizations or voluntary sector organizations.

        • Since these voluntary organizations decided to remain outside of the politics and do not contest election; hence, they became popular as ‘non-party political formation.’

        • Dalit Panthers, a militant organization of the Dalit youth, was formed in Maharashtra in 1972.

        • In the post-independence period, Dalit groups were mainly fighting against the perpetual caste based inequalities and material injustices that they faced in spite of constitutional guarantees of equality and justice

        • In the 1980s, farmers’ dissension was also rising, which gave birth to farmers’ agitation against the government’s decision (especially increasing the electricity rate).

        • The Bharatiya Kisan Union (BKU) was one of the leading organizations (exclusively involved for the farmers’ movement) during the period of eighties.

        • Activities conducted by the BKU to pressurize the state through rallies, demonstrations, sit-ins, and jail bharo (courting imprisonment) agitations to get their demands accepted.

        • Dissented Fish workers, especially from Kerala, took the main responsibility of mobilizing fellow workers, including women workers from other States.

        • When the government’s deep sea fishing policy (1991) that opened up India’s waters to large commercial vessels including those of the multinational fishing companies came into existence, work of the National Fish Workers’ Forum (NFF) consolidated its first legal battle with the Union government successfully.

        • Another movement initiated by women was the movement against the sale of liquor/alcohol. Women in Nellore came together in spontaneous local initiatives to protest against arrack and forced closure of the wine shop.

        • In the 1988-89, Narmada Bachao Aandolan (NBA), a movement to save the Narmada, opposed the construction of these dams and questioned the nature of ongoing developmental projects in the country.

        • NBA continued a sustained agitation for more than twenty years and used every available democratic strategy to put forward its demands.

        • The movement for Right to Information (RTI) is commenced in 1990, when a mass-based organization called the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS) in Rajasthan took the initiative in demanding records of famine relief work and accounts of laborers.

        • These movements suggest that the routine functioning of democracy did not have enough space for the voices of these social groups; therefore, the real-life impact of these movements on the nature of public policies seems to be very limited.

        Indian Polity - Foreign Policy

        Introduction

        • During the period immediately after the second world War, the world divided into two clear poles — one was under the influence of the United States and its western allies and the other was under the influence of the then Soviet Union.

        • The polarization of power was the beginning of Cold War Era between the two blocs led by the superpowers namely the US and the USSR.

        • The foreign policy of a nation reflects the interplay of domestic and external factors.

        Nehru Policy

        • Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, was also the foreign minister and played a crucial role in shaping India’s foreign policy between 1946 and 1964.

        • The three major objectives of Nehru’s foreign policy were −

          • To preserve the hard-earned sovereignty,

          • To protect territorial integrity, and

          • To promote rapid economic development.

        • To achieve these three objectives, Pandit Nehru adopted the strategy of nonalignment.

        • Because of its nonalignment policy, in 1956, when Britain attacked Egypt over the Suez Canal issue, India led the world protest against this neo-colonial invasion.

        • However, while India was trying to convince the other developing countries about the policy of non-alignment, Pakistan joined the US-led military alliances.

        • Secondly, throughout the 1940s and 1950s, Nehru had been remained an ardent advocate of Asian unity.

        • The Afro-Asian conference that held in the Indonesian city of Bandung in 1955, commonly known as the Bandung Conference, recognized as the zenith of India’s engagement with the newly independent Asian and African nations.

        • Later, the Bandung Conference led to the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and Pandit Nehru was the co-founder of the NAM.

        • The First Summit of the NAM was held in Belgrade in September 1961.

        Bilateral Agreements

        • Panchsheel was the joint effort under which, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, by the Indian Prime Minister Nehru and the Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai was signed on 29 April 1954 in the direction of stronger relationship between the two countries.

        • In spite of the ‘Panchsheel Agreement,’ between the period of 1957 and 1959, the Chinese occupied the Aksai-chin area and built a strategic road there.

        • Finally, China launched a swift and massive invasion in October 1962 on both the disputed regions i.e. Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin area in Jammu and Kashmir.

        • A long-term dispute between India and Pakistan about the sharing of river water was resolved through mediation by the World Bank. Resultantly, the India-Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty was signed by Nehru and General Ayub Khan in 1960.

        • An armed conflict between India and Pakistan began in 1965; at that time, Lal Bahadur Shastri was the Prime Minister of India. The hostilities came to an end with the UN intervention.

        • Later, the-then Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan’s General Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement in January 1966, and it was mediated by the Soviet Union.

        • In 1971, the US and China supported Pakistan.

        • India signed a 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union in August 1971 to counter the US-Pakistan-China axis.

        • Pakistan’s attack on India in December 1971, was the major loss for both the countries; secondly, because of this war, East Pakistan became an Independent country as Bangladesh.

        • The dispute was resolved through the signing of the Shimla Agreement between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on July 3, 1972.

        Nuclear Development

        • Another important development of this period was the first nuclear explosion undertaken by India in May 1974.

        • When Communist China conducted nuclear tests in October 1964, the five nuclear weapon powers i.e. the US, the USSR, the UK, France, and China (the five Permanent Members of the UN Security Council) tried to impose the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 on the rest of the world. However, India always considered the NPT as discriminatory and had refused to sign it.

        • India conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998, demonstrating its capacity to use nuclear energy for military purposes.

        • Before the period of 1990, Russia was the important political friend of India, but after the period of 1990, Russia, though it continues to be an important friend of India, has lost its global preeminence and India’s pro-US policy started developing.

        • India’s foreign policy is always dictated by ideas of national interest.