1962年、有名なアメリカの世論調査員ゴードンギャラップは、現代の中流階級の母性のスナップショットについて、全国の1,813人の既婚白人女性を調査しました。彼らの回答から、ギャラップは、主婦が社会でプラムの地位を享受していると結論付けました。Gallupによれば、急で厄介なキャリアのはしごを登らなければならなかった男性の主婦とは異なり、米国の主婦は「なぜ彼らが地球にいるのかを正確に知っており」、満足のいく妻と称賛に値する母親になるという2つの明確な目標を目指しています。 [出典:Coontz ]。
ギャラップの評価がマークを外したと言うのは、正確にはネタバレ警告ではありません。ベティ・フリーダンが1963年の著書「女性の創造」で「名前のない問題」とすぐに説明したように、1960年代に主婦であったことは、お茶の変色のようにその輝きを失い始めていました。アメリカの在宅の母親の頂点としての1950年代と1960年代の概念に反して、国内の女神としての役割を果たすことは、その唯一の目的ではなく、女性の生活の補助的な側面としてすでに広く見られていました。その時までに、心理学者や社会批評家は、思春期の「団塊の世代」を甘やかし、郊外で浪費したことで在宅の母親を非難し始めていました。「母親の愛情がとても強い。しかし、ギャラップが戸別訪問を始めたとき、女性はまだエプロンを脱ぎ捨てて、一斉に台所から出て行かなかった。
1960年代と1970年代にフリーダンと第二波フェミニズムでエスカレートした自宅から職場の母親へのその主要な移行は確かに国内のダイナミクスを変えました。たとえば、1960年には、学齢期の子供を持つ既婚の母親の27.6パーセントが仕事をしていました。その数は2010年までに70.8パーセントに急上昇しました[出典:米国労働統計局のAlgerandCrowley ]。仕事と母性を両立させる現代の女性に加えて、誰が新しい母親に加わっているのか、そしていつ参加するのかという人口統計も、ここ数十年でかなり変化しています。Pew Research Centerによると、2008年には、少なくともある程度の大学教育を受けた35歳以上の女性が、1990年よりもアメリカの母親人口の大部分を占めていました[出典:Livingston and Cohn]。そして、ブリーフケースが一般的なママの持ち運びになっている一方で、結婚指輪は道に迷っています。2012年の時点で、赤ちゃんを産んでいる30歳未満の女性の大多数は、結婚以外でそうしています[出典:DeParleandTavernise ]。
しかし、過去200年間、ほとんど変わっていないアメリカの母性の1つの側面があります。米国の母親の構成、人口統計、社会的価値は、女性のより大きな文化的歴史の中で絶えず進化してきましたが、1700年代後半以降、母親は国の将来の健康と約束の門番と見なされてきました。
- アメリカの母性:簡単な文化的タイムライン
- 母性が体と脳にその痕跡を残す方法
- 心の中の母性:ベイビーフィーバーからベイビーブルースまで
- 仕事vs.子供:マミートラック
- ママの性生活
- 著者のメモ
アメリカの母性:簡単な文化的タイムライン
18世紀の家は、個別の生産拠点として機能したのと同じように、家族のための避難所や聖体拝領の場所としても機能しました。農耕社会と職人の貿易は家屋敷を中心としており、母親はその国内生産の中心であり、洗濯、掃除、ろうそく作り、バターかき混ぜ、織りなどの仕事を担当していました。一方、女性は、夫の管理下にある法的な規定、収入、相続をほとんど享受していませんでした。しかし、1750年代になると、啓蒙時代の考え方は、より大きな男女平等を求め始め、反イングランド感情が醸成されていたアメリカ植民地では、母性は市民の義務と解放の感覚に恵まれるようになりました。
女性が第19条改正の下で選挙権を獲得する前は、1920年でしたが、母親は、新しく設立された国の最も重要な美徳の源としてすぐに利用されました。共和党の母性は、乳幼児国の若い市民を育てるという女性の仕事を理想化し、母親の子供への影響を、子供がどのように成長し、アメリカの成功に貢献するかという前兆と混同しました[出典:レンダル]。そして、国の経済が国内生産から資本主義に移行し、19世紀に父親を家から工場や都会の中心に追いやるにつれて、母性はさらに思春期の育成と道徳の高貴な基盤として特徴付けられました。同様に、ビクトリア朝の家庭は、収入と身体的保護を提供するという男性の義務と、育成と精神的保護の女性の領域との間で明確に分けられていました[出典:植物]。
しかし、第一次世界大戦後、アメリカの母性文化は、科学への心を落ち着かせる精神的な指導から劇的に変わりました。たとえば、1847年の米国医師会の結成とその男性医師の軍団は、1900年代初頭に多くの場所で助産を非合法化するよう働きかけ、出産を家庭での女性の事件から病院での滅菌された男性主導の手順に効果的に再配置しました。 [出典:Leggitt ]。一方、進歩主義時代の子供と育児の専門家は、米国児童局の支援を受けて、母親が職業として子育てに取り組み、給餌と昼寝をスケジュールし、遊びの質と量に細心の注意を払うことを奨励しました[出典:Hulbert ]。
このようにして、ベティ・フリーダンの1963年の「女性の創造」が登場し、第2波のフェミニストが(ブラジャーではなく)エプロンを燃やし始めるずっと前に、フルタイムの在宅母性の輝きが鈍くなり始めました。反母性感情は、第二次世界大戦中およびその後に米国で広まりました。特に、フィリップ・ワイリーが1942年に「モミズム」を作り出したことで、母性の抱きしめすぎによる衰弱効果が想定されていました[出典:クーンツ]。それでもなお、その後の数十年でさえ、アメリカの母性は避けられないアイデンティティから任意の職業に変化しました-米国食品医薬品局による1960年の経口避妊薬の承認と1964年の公民権法職場での性差別を除けば、その役割は依然として物議を醸し、争われています。
母親になるための最善の方法についての何世紀にもわたる議論はすぐには解決されませんが、当事者は母性について概念的に意見が分かれる可能性がありますが、赤ちゃんを産むことが女性の体をどのように変えるかという生物学的事実は、信じられないほどではありませんが、議論の余地がありません。
数字で見るアメリカのお母さん
- 米国の8,540万人の母親(2009年)
- 2009年に400万人の女性が新しい母親になりました
- 2002年に614,000人の女性が養母になりました
- 25.1歳は2009年の新しいお母さんの平均年齢でした
[出典:児童福祉情報ゲートウェイ、米国国勢調査]
母性が体と脳にその痕跡を残す方法
ほとんどの女性は、それに伴う身体的変化のために出産を楽しみにしていません。確かに、出産病棟の母親は、赤ちゃんが子宮を出るとすぐに約10ポンド(4.5キログラム)を失いますが、その時点までに、母親の前の体は過ぎ去った時代の思い出に過ぎません[出典:米国保健社会福祉省]。出産後の最初の数日と数週間で、母親の体は赤ちゃんのいない状態に順応し、子宮組織と血液、切開液、母乳、場合によっては尿さえも排出します[出典:クリーブランドクリニック]。女性の腹は分娩室のように膨満していませんが、引き裂かれたコラーゲン繊維のストレッチマークは、赤ちゃんがそこにいたことを目に見える形で残します。そして、母親の生活への適応が十分に困難ではないかのように、産後のホルモンの変動も気分のむらを引き起こす傾向があります[出典:Wickelgren ]。
「ママの脳」と呼ばれる生理学的現象によって証明されるように、母性は女性の気分だけでなく、女性の認知能力にも影響を与える可能性があります。妊娠中の母親と新しい母親は、一般的に短期記憶のギャップを報告し、家の鍵を置いた場所や、気付かずに目的地を通り過ぎた場所などの単純なことを忘れます。一見すると、これは出産が女性の形に優しくない方法の洗濯物リストのさらに別の項目のように見えるかもしれませんが、2000年代半ばの研究者は、一時的な精神的なドロドロが脳の準備の方法である可能性があると疑うようになりました母性のためにそれ自体; 言い換えれば、「母性本能」としてしばしば組み立てられるものは、実際には適応された神経学的プロセスである可能性があります[出典:Sohn ]。
繰り返される研究は、「ママの脳」が新しいママの神経学的変身を示すという考えを裏付けています。処女を持つ母親であるラットを比較するラットの研究は、2セットの女性の間の神経学的な違いの群れを特定しました。ママラットは、獲物をより速く検出して捕まえ、迷路をより速くナビゲートし、脅迫的な状況でより低いレベルのストレスを示すことができます[出典:ハワードとランバート]。科学者たちは、母体の縁は、コルチゾール、オキシトシン、プロラクチンなどの妊娠関連ホルモンによって研ぎ澄まされた脳領域に関連している可能性があることを示唆しています。
イェール大学の2010年の研究では、人間の母親も分娩室を出るときにわずかな、しかし重大な神経学的変化を経験することが確認されました。出産直後と数か月後の19人の母親の機能的MRI (fMRI)スキャンでは、視床下部、前頭前野、扁桃体という、動機付け、報酬、感情に関連する3つの主要な脳領域の機能強化が見つかりました[出典: Sohn ]。そのエールの発見に加えて、以前の研究では、新しい母親の脳の嗅覚ニューロンの上昇が検出され、赤ちゃんの香りが鼻孔に特に注目される理由が説明されています[出典:Pappas]。このように舗装されたばかりのシナプス経路は、母子の絆が、クーチークースとチンチャックを育むユニークで永続的な脳機能であることを示しています。
母親と赤ちゃんの間に永続的な架け橋を築く神経学的構築プロジェクトに加えて、明確な心理的プロセスは、母親になりたいという女性の最初の欲求や、時にはでこぼこした新しい母親への適応にも影響を与えます。
誰が赤ちゃんを養子縁組に出すのですか?
連邦政府のデータによると、養子縁組のために赤ちゃんを育てることを選択した女性は、米国では統計的にまれです。たとえば、2004年には、約400万人の新しい母親のうち14,000人未満が、子供たちの監護権を自発的に放棄しました[出典:米国児童家庭局]。追加の研究によると、これらのシナリオの女性は白人で中流階級である傾向があり、養子縁組の選択肢に対するボーイフレンドや家族の欲求に影響されています。
Motherhood in the Mind: From Baby Fever to Baby Blues
Plenty of adult women have probably experienced something along these lines: They're out in public, grocery shopping or strolling in a park perhaps, and a cuddly, giggly baby with pinchable, chubby cheeks crawls into their sight lines. Then suddenly, out of nowhere, they come down with so-called "baby fever," the symptoms of which include sighing wistfully during diaper commercials.
In 1891, the world's first evolutionary psychologist, Edward Westermarck, coolly explained this phenomenon as a "universal child-bearing instinct" that nudges both men and women toward reproduction [source: Rotkirch]. More than a century later, scientists still haven't entirely explained the biological underpinnings of mental reproductive mania, but they have confirmed that "baby fever" exists for men and women alike. In their late 20s, especially, as many as 58 percent of men and 78 percent of women develop overwhelming, and sometimes fleeting, desires to procreate [source: Clark-Flory]. Interestingly, for men, baby fever becomes more common after fathering their first child, whereas women's susceptibility to it lessens following new motherhood [source: Rochman].
That gender difference may have to do with the mood swings associated with childbirth. In the 24 hours following delivery, a woman's levels of estrogen and progesterone plummet to their pre-pregnancy levels, commonly triggering mild depression [source: A.D.A.M. Medical Dictionary]. Doctors refer to those first couple weeks of crying episodes, sleeplessness and loss of appetite as run-of-the-mill "baby blues." However, when those blues persist into the first couple months of new motherhood, postpartum depression may be to blame. Thirteen percent of pregnant women and new mothers experience depression, which may be attributed to hormonal fluctuations and going off of antidepressant drugs while expecting [source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services]. Although baby fever can ultimately spiral into baby blues and postpartum depression, the latter two mental health conditions are treatable through maternity-safe medications and talk therapy.
Once women get over the initial postpartum hump, the stress of raising a child doesn't disappear by any stretch, especially since they arrive at yet another life-altering crossroads: to work or not to work?
Teen Moms Less Common
In February 2012, the National Center for Health Statistics announced the U.S. teen birth rate had dropped to its lowest level since 1946, when the agency first began gathering data [source: Park]. Teen birth rates in the United States topped out at 61.8 per 1,000 women in 1991, settling down to almost half that -- 34.4 per 1,000 women -- in 2010. Countries with even lower teen pregnancy rates include Sweden, France and Canada [source: Darroch et al].
Work vs. Kids: The Mommy Track
In early 2012, Wendy M. Williams, director of the Cornell Institute for Women in Science, and her academic colleague Stephen J. Ceci put their heads together to solve a puzzle that had long plagued the STEM -- science, technology, engineering and math -- fields. With record numbers of female students pursuing STEM careers, Williams and Ceci wanted to find out why so few end up achieving full professorships and tenure at colleges and universities. After crunching the numbers, a succinct explanation for the STEM women drop-off emerged: motherhood [source: Williams and Ceci]. Rather than put in extensive hours in pursuit of academic tenure as their biological clocks tick away, many female STEM students tend to take the off-ramp to raising a family.
Indeed, becoming a mother encompasses more than decisions about bassinets and breastfeeding. For most modern women, it involves a career choice and a determination of how much maternity leave will cost them in the end. Analysis from the U.S. Census Bureau published in 2011, for instance, found that 50 percent of first-time moms without a college degree and 13 percent with a secondary degree quit their jobs for pregnancy-related reasons [source: Bass].
Even when new moms hold on to their jobs, childbirth likely leads to a pay cut over the long term. According to the National Bureau for Economic Research, highly skilled women sacrifice 21 to 33 percent of their potential lifetime incomes after they become mothers, while dads in the office can expect to give up barely one-tenth of that [source: Leonhardt]. The business world is especially stingy toward working mothers; a Harvard study published in 2010 reported that M.B.A.-holding moms who took 18-month maternity leaves experienced, on average, a 41 percent income disparity compared to M.B.A.-toting men [source: Greenhouse].
But what about the kids? Isn't a discounted income a meager price to pay for raising healthy, adjusted kids? Conceptually, yes. Yet research on maternal employment and child development has found that working mothers don't adversely affect their children's lives. A meta analysis out of the University of California, Irvine, concluded that on the whole, children grow up into stable, successful adults whether their moms devote their time to domestic duties or office work [source: Ulene]. Moreover, a little bit of work may be good for mamas. A comparison of full-time, part-time and unemployed mothers found that part-time jobs correlated to better health, lower stress and greater sensitivity to their children's needs, compared to the women on either end of the employment spectrum [source: Rochman].
But of course, all work and no play make mothers dull -- and not to mention exhausted -- women . So to circle back to where the issue of motherhood typically begins, it's time to find out how becoming a mom affects women's love lives and long-term romantic relationships.
Bringing up Baby...in Prison
Hard data on the number of U.S. female prisoners who become incarcerated while pregnant are difficult to pin down since not all states track it. However, prison systems in a number of states, including California, South Dakota, Nebraska and New York have established nursery programs that allow female inmates to live with their newborns during their sentence [source: Stern]. Some criminal justice researchers think these programs can help curb the new mothers' chances of ending up back behind bars by bonding them with their babies, thereby fostering a maternal incentive to mind the law [source: Smalley].
Mommy's Sex Life
The year 2011 brought its own bundle of joy to pregnant women and their partners. According to a conclusive analysis published then in the Canadian Medical Association Journal, sex while expecting poses no harm to a healthy developing fetus [source: Rochman]. That pronouncement roundly discredited popular, though misguided, superstitions that intercourse and orgasmic contractions could potentially rupture a uterus or induce childbirth too soon. In fact, a woman's libido may crest during her second trimester due to pregnancy-related lubrication and engorgement in the genital area [source: Mann].
After delivery, sex is probably the last thing a new mother craves. Typical doctors' orders advise no hanky-panky for at least four to six weeks following childbirth, giving plenty of time for the body to heal [source: Mayo Clinic]. But just because sex may be physically safe for new moms after that recovery window doesn't mean they'll automatically be in the mood. It's common for motherhood to correlate with a drop in sexual desire for many reasons. A 2005 study out of Sweden conducted extensive interviews with new mothers about their sexual attitudes, and the women voiced common concerns about negotiating their pre-partum and postpartum bedroom lives. Not only did many of the participants prefer sleep over sex due to the schedule demands of caring for a newborn, the mothers also expressed anxiety over their altered post-baby bodies [source: Olsson]. On the up side, a majority of the interviewees also expected their libidos to rebound in the near future.
If, however, those new mothers were breastfeeding, it might've taken longer than expected for that lovin' feelin' to rekindle. Women who breastfeed commonly complain of lackluster sex drives -- likely a direct result of hormones. Prolactin stimulates milk production, simultaneously lowering the amount of estrogen and testosterone in the bloodstream , both of which are related to arousal [source: Boston Women's Health Book Collective]. Ironically, researchers at University of Chicago published a study in 2005 that claimed breastfeeding women emit a chemical signal that incites sexual arousal in non-nursing women [source: Peres]. Nursing women, on the other hand, often have to wait until a child weans to experience a rebounded sex drive.
Postpartum libido loss aside, couples that transition to parenthood face long-term challenges to keeping the spark alive. Despite the initial joy of expanding a family, having a baby often marks a downturn in marital satisfaction for as many as two-thirds of couples [source: Zimmerman]. As of 2009, in fact, more than 25 studies identified a significant dip in nuptial bliss after babies enter the picture, followed by a return to happy harmony after grown kids fly the coop [source: Coontz]. A growing body of research also suggests that lesbian parents may enjoy slightly higher relationship satisfaction due to more even division of housework, but overall they mirror their heterosexual counterparts [source: Lamb].
Teasing apart that underwhelming data does offer a heartening nugget of wisdom for women wishing to become mothers: Couples that experienced intended pregnancies that they equally agreed upon demonstrated the most relational resilience during the parental transition [source: Lawrence]. In other words, when it comes to motherhood, it pays to plan ahead. Just don't expect to be fully prepared for everything that goes along with raising a baby, as any mommy brain out there can fully attest.
Author's Note
After writing the final paragraphs of How Motherhood Works, I initially worried that I had just painted a downright worst-case-scenario of how being a mother affects women. From the get-go, pregnancy and childbirth are tough on the body. Pre- and postpartum hormonal fluctuations take a toll on the psyche. Then after the birthing is over, all of the directives about how to be the best parent possible emotionally exhaust today's time-strapped mother.
But once I reflected on the sum total of the research, I realized that while motherhood is a physically, mentally and emotionally daunting prospect, there's a radiant silver lining to it. The fact that women's brains and figures are literally built to take on what some refer to as the hardest job in the world is scientifically phenomenal. Strip away the cultural constructs and gender-biased baggage of what motherhood should look like, and you have an incredible biological feat. And that's all the more reason to consider motherhood not so much as a role, but a unique strength and breathtaking possibility.
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