Cách thức hoạt động của Tìm kiếm và Cứu hộ

Mỗi khi một người đi bộ lạc vào rừng, các đài tin tức địa phương sẽ không nghi ngờ gì nữa cho thấy hình ảnh máy bay trực thăng bay vù vù trên đầu, những Người chăn cừu Đức đánh hơi sàn rừng và hàng loạt người đang chải đầu trong rừng để tìm kiếm manh mối. Một chút thông tin chi tiết ngắn gọn về thế giới của các đội tìm kiếm và cứu nạn (SAR) là tất cả những gì mà công chúng từng thấy. Trên thực tế, SAR vượt xa những thông tin sơ lược về tin tức này - đó là một dịch vụ khẩn cấp mở rộng được thực hiện bởi các chuyên gia quân sự được đào tạo chuyên sâu, cơ quan thực thi pháp luật địa phương và tình nguyện viên dân sự.

Mục tiêu của SAR là xác định vị trí, ổn định và trích xuất các cá thể gặp nạn. Điều đó có thể có nghĩa là một người đi bộ đường dài trên sườn núi, một thủy thủ bị lạc trên biển, một người sống sót sau thảm họa đô thị bị mắc kẹt, một người lính bị bắt hoặc một bệnh nhân Alzheimer lang thang trên đường phố thành phố. Mỗi lĩnh vực của SAR sử dụng các kỹ thuật cụ thể cho từng trường hợp. Cứu hộ trên không và trên biển đòi hỏi những người bơi lội đại dương và phi công trực thăng có tay nghề cao. Giải cứu chiến đấu sử dụng các đội Lực lượng Đặc biệt thành tựu nhất của quân đội. Urban SAR yêu cầu các chuyên gia vật liệu nguy hiểm và chuyên gia kết cấu.

Từ FEMA đến các sở cảnh sát trưởng quận, chuyên gia kỹ thuật đến tình nguyện viên địa phương - các đội SAR thực hiện công việc quan trọng trên khắp thế giới mỗi ngày. Trong bài viết này, chúng ta sẽ xem xét các đội SAR đào tạo khác nhau để thực hiện nhiệm vụ của họ cũng như các phương tiện và thiết bị mà họ sử dụng. Chúng tôi cũng sẽ nêu bật các khu vực cụ thể của SAR và tìm hiểu về các phương pháp và kỹ thuật mà họ sử dụng để xác định vị trí và trích xuất những người cần một cách an toàn.

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Công nghệ được sử dụng trong tìm kiếm và cứu nạn trên biển do NASA phát triển. Tìm hiểu thêm về những đổi mới thú vị của NASA trong hoạt ảnh tương tác này từ Kênh Discovery .

1. Huấn luyện SAR
2. Đặc khu đô thị (USAR)
3. Thiết bị USAR
4. Cứu hộ trên không / trên biển (ASR)
5. Chiến đấu SAR (CSAR)
6. Kỹ thuật tìm kiếm

Trường SAR Quốc gia cho Quân đội Hoa Kỳ tọa lạc tại Trung tâm Huấn luyện Cảnh sát biển ở Yorktown, Va. Do Không quân Hoa Kỳ và Lực lượng Bảo vệ Bờ biển Hoa Kỳ cùng điều hành, phương châm của trường đã nói lên tất cả: "Luôn sẵn sàng, Những người khác có thể sống." Trường bắt đầu với số tiền ít ỏi 15.000 đô la và chỉ có sáu giảng viên được đào tạo, nhưng trường đã kỷ niệm 40 năm thành lập vào tháng 10 năm 2006, đã đào tạo hơn 29.000 người từ 148 quốc gia khác nhau về các thủ tục SAR hàng hải và nội địa [nguồn: Coast Guard ].

Sinh viên tại trường được đào tạo bởi các chuyên gia SAR giàu kinh nghiệm, nhiều người trong số họ là cựu sinh viên. Họ có thể chứa đồng thời ba lớp sinh viên học các kỹ thuật lập kế hoạch và thực hành các tình huống SAR trong đời thực. Mục tiêu chương trình chính của trường là:

[nguồn: Trung tâm đào tạo Yorktown ]

Các mục tiêu chương trình của trường SAR bao gồm tiêu chuẩn thực tế là cứu được 93 phần trăm số người gặp nguy hiểm và 85 phần trăm tài sản gặp rủi ro. Các đội SAR của Cảnh sát biển dự kiến ​​sẽ sẵn sàng hành động trong vòng 30 phút kể từ khi có thông báo của Hệ thống Ứng phó và Sự cố Quốc gia (NRDS), với tổng thời gian phản ứng là hai giờ kể từ khi họ được thông báo đến khi đến hiện trường [nguồn : Trung tâm đào tạo Yorktown ].

­

Bài kiểm tra hiệu suất của đội SAR là đánh giá Quy trình Hoạt động và Huấn luyện Hàng không Hải quân (NATOPS). Sau khi kiểm tra kỹ lưỡng việc lưu trữ hồ sơ và thủ tục giấy tờ do các nhóm duy trì, các thành viên của nhóm SAR sẽ làm một bài kiểm tra viết chi tiết bao gồm mọi thứ từ vận hành thiết bị đến hầu như mọi kỹ thuật SAR. Một câu hỏi ví dụ có thể là: "Những giới hạn cao độ và độ lăn nào nên được duy trì trong quá trình vận hành hệ thống bôi trơn khẩn cấp?"

Next up is the grueling physical test. After a round of 25 pull-ups, SAR team members run a timed 100-yard obstacle course while carrying two 50-pound dumbbells. Then they're timed while they march one mile carrying a 40-pound rescue litter -- the caged metal stretcher used in air and sea rescues. Team members then get in their rescue harness, swim fins and snorkel for a one-third of a mile solo swim, followed by another third pulling along a volunteer "victim" -- to be completed in 27 minutes.

The inland training features rock climbing , rappelling and rescuing 180-pound dummies entangled in trees 60 feet off the ground. There are also combination scenarios -- a helicopter crew has ejected leaving two men in the water, one in the trees and one stranded cliffside. Rescuers are rated on their planning and execution as well as how they work as a team.

Civilian SAR training isn't standardized, and there are dozens of private SAR schools open for business. Sheriff departments might send deputies to a private SAR school, but most participants are average citizens who have a desire to help those in need. They often spend their own money on training and equipment.

In the next section, we'll look at how important urban search and rescue is in helping victims of natural and man-made disasters.

Mounted SAR

More and more often, mountainous regions are making use of horses in their SAR missions. Horses can provide transport of foot searchers to locations not accessible by automobiles -- like the side of a mountain. The horses can assist in extraction of injured and dead or haul supplies on long SAR operations. They can also help establish radio relay positions over long distances by setting up in between search points. A forensics expert who rarely leaves the lab might benefit from riding to the search location rather than attempting to hike [source: Downs].

Cơ quan Quản lý Khẩn cấp Liên bang (FEMA) đã thành lập Kế hoạch Ứng phó Quốc gia cho các thảm họa vào năm 1991 và tài trợ cho 25 lực lượng đặc nhiệm USAR quốc gia. Trong trường hợp xảy ra thảm họa tại quê hương, FEMA sẽ gửi ba đội USAR gần nhất trong vòng sáu giờ sau khi được thông báo - nhiều đội sẽ theo dõi nếu cần thiết. Những điều sau được coi là thảm họa đô thị:

Các nhóm USAR thực hiện vai trò hỗ trợ cho các hệ thống khẩn cấp địa phương và tiểu bang, những người đóng vai trò là người dẫn đầu. Mỗi đội đặc nhiệm USAR bao gồm hai đội 31 người và bốn chú chó SAR.

Các đội USAR được đào tạo trong bốn lĩnh vực chuyên biệt:

The most massive USAR mission in U.S. history followed the events of Sept. 11. On that day, terrorists collapsed the Twin Towers in New York City with commercial jet liners, leaving behind injured survivors buried under millions of pounds of rubble. Twenty FEMA USAR teams were dispatched to New York to rescue and recover the survivors. Trained SAR dogs were a key component to the rescue operations at ground zero and made up the largest deployment of rescue dogs in U.S. history with more than 80 on duty. Dogs worked in 12-hour shifts with equal amounts of rest and search time. (You can read more about SAR dogs in How Search-and-Rescue Dogs Work .) Rescue workers also used electronic listening devices and search cameras to help locate survivors.

Many other specialists were deployed for the Sept. 11 SAR effort. Heavy-rigging experts headed up the operation of cranes and bulldozers necessary to move heavy chunks of concrete and steel . Hazardous materials authorities were on hand to ensure the safety of the rescue workers and dogs. With thousands of volunteers on hand, logistics specialists coordinated the rescue effort so everything ran smoothly.

In the next section, we'll look at the equipment used in urban search and rescue.

Civil Air Patrol

The Civil Air Patrol (CAP) is a nonprofit organization made up of more than 56,000 civilian pilots and cadets who supplement the U.S. Military's aviation duties. It was established in 1941 by Gill Robb Wilson and New York Mayor Fiorello La Guardia. Originally the CAP was to serve only as a liaison and reconnaissance group. But during World War II, it began carrying bombs and depth chargers to intercept German submarines targeting American ships.

The CAP is headquartered at Maxwell Air Force Base in Alabama and boasts the world's largest fleet of single engine airplanes . The air patrol plays a significant role in SAR operations, performing 90 percent of inland missions from the skies. They save an average of 75 lives each year on these missions [source: CAP].

In addition to the SAR support, they also perform these civic duties:

• Aid in disaster relief and damage assessment
• Help fight the war on drugs
• Transport time-sensitive medical materials
• Provide aerial searches for Homeland Security

Search-and-rescue operations in an urban environment present a unique challenge. It's not a single survivor floating in the ocean or a lost hiker in the wilderness. Disasters like Sept. 11 and Hurricane Katrina involve a variety of obstacles, which require a lot of equipment and specialists who know how to use it. To call the equipment cache for an urban search-and-rescue operation vast is quite an understatement. FEMA's USAR task force equipment list is more than 60 pages long and contains over 2,000 items [source: FEMA]. The list covers everything from structural shoring equipment to dog food and port-o-potties.

The days of using jacks to lift vehicles and chunks of concrete off an injured person are long gone. These days, USAR teams use airbag lifting systems to do the job. The flat Kevlar bags are inserted under the heavy object and inflated with an air pump. The largest deluxe bag systems are capable of lifting as much as 70 tons 20 inches off the ground at full inflation [source: Simplex]. In addition to the lifters, shoring equipment is necessary to make sure the passageways the teams create are stable and safe to travel into.

Traditional heavy demolition and construction equipment is key to any USAR operation. Concrete saws, jackhammers, chainsaws and hand tools like pry bars, axes and bolt cutters are just a few implements used on site. USAR teams use heavy-rigging gear like chains, cables, anchors and rope-hauling systems to remove larger pieces of collapsed building. By tying them to bulldozers and cranes , the large debris is moved slowly and safely. Laser range finders and wind detectors are on hand to judge distances and measure conditions on site. Heavy winds can delay a search because they can compromise the integrity of the structure and the safety of the search team.

Hazardous material equipment is also necessary to ensure the safety of the USAR workers. Teams use everything from special suits, gloves, masks and boot covers to oxygen and carbon monitoring systems that check the air quality to make sure no invisible dangers exist. Whenever any suspicious leaks or odors are detected, workers use radiation and chemical test kits to check the levels in the air.

USAR teams are recommended to have at least three different visual search devices in their cache. Teams use snake-eye and fiber optic camera systems to get into places that the human eye can't reach. These cameras are attached to video relay monitors and sent into small crevices to search out survivors. If survivors are found, USAR workers insert breathing tubes to allow the trapped person a breath of air. They send backboards and rescue litters attached to rope hauling systems to stabilize the survivor.

Medical supplies are plentiful on USAR trucks. The teams are outfitted with the necessary medical equipment to deal with just about any scenario. Cervical collars, eye flushes, immunizations, pain medication, wound care kits and splints are only the tip of the iceberg for these mobile hospitals. USAR teams even pack defibrillators and endotracheal tubes in order to shock someone back to life or perform an emergency tracheotomy if necessary.

In addition to all the life-saving and construction equipment, there are all manner of communication systems as well as the ordinary everyday items used to keep the team going. Food , water , toilet paper, blankets, clipboards, paper, camera film, batteries and power generators are all necessary in order to keep the operation going full-time. Even crayons find their way onto the FEMA list -- they're used to mark concrete and stone.

In the next section, we'll dive into air and sea rescue.

Predator Drones

In May 2006, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) authorized the use of the unmanned MQ-1 and MQ-9 Predator planes to be used for civilian SAR. These remote-controlled planes are equipped with infrared cameras that can spot a heat source as small as a human from 10,000 feet. The use of the Predator, while limited at the moment because of the war in Iraq, could mean saving the lives of many natural disaster victims in the future [source: USAF].

The Coast Guard , Navy and Air Force carry out search-and-rescue missions in U.S. waters. This applies to individuals lost at sea as well as downed airmen. The Coast Guard reports that 95 percent of all sea rescue missions occur less than 20 miles from the shoreline. Additionally, 90 percent of these incidents involve only rescue, without a search. This is largely due to distress beacons found on boats and planes, giving the Coast Guard a high probability of finding the person in distress in short time. A limited or nonexistent search is ideal because the less time they spend looking, the more people they can save. It's also less risky for the SAR teams and doesn't cost as much money. The 10 percent of missions that involve a search cost the Coast Guard more than $50 million each year [source: U.S. Coast Guard].

The mission of any Air/Sea Rescue (ASR) team is simple: get people out of the water before they succumb to the unforgiving sea. Helicopters fly in to drop rescue swimmers into the ocean from heights up to 60 feet, sometimes into 10-20 foot waves and shark -infested waters. The downed airman is often tangled in parachute lines or still attached to his ejection seat, struggling to stay afloat. While getting pelted with 100-knot wind from the helicopter's rotors, it's the job of the rescue swimmer not only to save the live of the survivor, but keep from being pulled under himself.

Navy and Coast Guard rescue swim training is among the most difficult in the military -- the school has a 50 percent dropout rate [source: military.com]. Potential SAR swimmers must come from the aviation side of the military and go through training specific to the helicopter they're assigned to. In addition to physical endurance training and a medical training course, students learn:

In the next section, we'll look at the important role that combat SAR plays in modern warfare.

Distress Beacons

Emergency locator transmittors (ELTs) have been used on boats and airplanes for decades. When activated, these distress beacons send a signal to an orbiting satellite that's able to pinpoint their location. They can be manually activated by the pilot or captain, or automatically activated when they hit water or go above a certain G-force .

­Older models operate at a 121.5-megahertz frequency and emit false signals 98 percent of the time. For this reason, starting Feb. 1, 2009, the FAA and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) will no longer monitor this frequency for rescue. After this date, aircraft and boats with these older beacons will have to count on planes flying directly overhead to pick up their calls for help.

Newer 406-megahertz beacons are the preferred standard, even though only 10 percent of the 200,000 planes in the United States have them. Most of these beacons are on commercial airliners. At $4,000, it's an expensive switch -- but one that the FAA urges private pilots to make.

When aviation adventurer Stev­e Fossett's single engine airplane went down over the Nevada desert in September 2007, his older 121.5-megahertz beacon was activated. His plane was never found, after a month of searching. Civil Air Patrol flyers found eight other previously undiscovered crash sites in the mountains, some as old as 30 years [source: The New York Times].

The life of each U.S. soldier is important, and combat search and rescue has become one of the most vital operations in modern warfare. In fact, CSAR units are among the first to arrive behind enemy lines after combat operations. The Department of Defense has appointed the U.S. Air Force as the lead in CSAR operations. Whenever an aircraft goes down or a soldier is isolated away from his unit, the Air Force CSAR comes in to locate, establish contact and attempt to recover him.

Other operational tasks of the CSAR units include:

Currently, the Air Force has two operational systems that use two different aircraft. The HC-130 plane is for long-range search operations in low-to-no threat scenarios. It also provides in-flight refueling for the search helicopters to extend the mission's range. The HH-60 helicopter is for search and recovery in a medium-threat environment. Each operation can perform in both day and nighttime scenarios. In the event of an emergency medical situation, the helicopters drop paramedic rescuers if the enemy threat is low enough. In order to minimize the threat, support aircraft launch air-to-air and air-to-ground missiles and gunfire to keep the enemy away.

­Authenticating the source of a distress call is the most important step in a CSAR mission. With the enemy's ability to monitor and jam radio frequencies, discreet ground-to-air signals are vital to the successful extraction of a soldier in need. After communication is established, the CSAR unit needs to get information on the physical well-being of the soldier first. After that, the authentication process is initiated. This typically entails relaying the soldier's name and rank, as well as unit numbers, colors and letters. Isolated personnel won't receive assistance until authentication is complete. Authentication details are never given in full over the radio as they can be stolen by the enemy. The CSAR team will ask the soldier to add, subtract or multiply specific digits in the authentication code and relay that information back. This allows the soldier to reuse the codes later without being compromised.

In the next section, we'll examine some of the techniques used by civilian SAR teams in missing persons searches.

Scott O'Grady

U.S. Air Force Captain Scott O'Grady became famous when he survived behind Bosnian enemy lines after his F-16 was shot down in 1995. The incident occurred at 27,000 feet, exploding his jet fighter and forcing him to eject, on fire, and parachute into the unfriendly region below.

He survived on bugs, but his primary concern was dehydration. With only a couple of packages of survival water, he collected rainwater and ultimately drank the sweat from his own socks. O'Grady avoided capture by the Serbs for six full days, while trying to establish contact with the airborne command center for rescue.

Once the CSAR team received the signal, they had a decision to make -- their preference was for a nighttime rescue to take advantage of night-vision capabilities and make the mission safer. But the signal was received just before dawn, and they didn't think­ waiting another day was an option. So two hours after they received the signal, in broad daylight, a Marine unit hit the ground and extracted O'Grady in just over two minutes [source: FIU].

O'Grady wrote about his survival and rescue in the book "Return with Honor."

In missing persons cases, there are many civilian volunteers that assist local and state SAR teams. Many times, it's initially unclear whether the missing person is a victim of foul play, injured and unable to signal for help, or simply lost. It's the job of law enforcement officials, working with volunteers, to collect clues and determine exactly what the mission will entail.

SAR teams' first priority is to establish a search area. This is typically a circle based on the last place the missing person was seen. As the search progresses, that point will change -- for example, if an article of clothing is found along a trail. This point then becomes the last known position, or LKP. If you have a last point seen and a last known position, then you have a reasonable approximation on which direction and how fast the person was traveling. For instance, if a woman was spotted at a trailhead at noon, and her water bottle was found on the trail an hour later four miles north of the trailhead, then you can hazard a guess that she's traveling north at about four miles an hour. This helps to establish the search area.

­When it comes to techniques, each type has its own probability of success. A slow and thorough search may produce more clues, but if time is of the essence, it may not be the best way to go. It's generally thought that multiple fast searches are more productive than a slower and more thorough approach. A hasty search team is typically the first to be deployed. Team members either work for the sheriff's department or are citizens who have undergone a great deal of SAR training. Their job is to pair up and move quickly -- the goal is to scan high-probability areas and end the search as soon as possible.

A grid search team moves slower and more methodically, combing the area with a long line of volunteers. Grid searchers typically find clues that help more experienced SAR teams find the missing person. A choke point is a man-made or geological characteristic that allows the SAR team to narrow the search. For instance, if there's a wide river that's only able to be crossed by bridge , the SAR team will station a lookout person at that bridge and the team can focus elsewhere. Sometimes SAR teams will use track traps to see if a person has passed through a particular area. One trap technique is to bring sand in along a wooded trail and periodically check it for footprints.

For more information on SAR and related subjects, please search the links on the next page.

SAR Costs: Who pays?

Each year, the National Park Servic­e spends $3 million on SAR operations [source: National Park Service]. Helicopters, fuel , equipment and manpower all figure into the expense of a SAR mission. This expense is passed along to U.S. taxpayers .

In the case of U.S. Military SAR, the federal government picks up the tab, which of course comes from taxpayers as well. Only three states currently have the option to charge people for rescue. Utah, Oregon and Colorado allow their SAR agencies to collect expenses, though they rarely attempt to. It's typically reserved for extreme adventurers who willingly put themselves in harm's way.

Many states are beginning to charge fees for thrill-seekers applying for backcountry permits. Colorado has a voluntary program where outdoor enthusiasts can purchase a rescue card that ensures they won't be charged in the event of a SAR mission. The money from the purchase of the cards supplements the county sheriff's office that heads up the operations.

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